H I STO  RY 

GOVERNMENT 
OF  NEW  MEXICO 


JOHN  H.VAUGHAN 


HISTORY  AND  GOVERNMENT 
OF  NEW  MEXICO 


BY 


JOHN    H.  VAUGHAN,    A.M. 

DEAN  OF  THE  SCHOOL  OF  GENERAL  SCIENCE  AND 
PROFESSOR    OF    HISTORY    AND    ECONOMICS 
NEW  MEXICO  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICUL- 
TURE   AND    MECHANIC    ARTS 


PUBLISHED    BY    THE    AUTHOR 

STATE   COLLEGE,   NEW   MEXICO 

1921 


OTHER  WORKS  BY  THE  SAME 
AUTHOR 

1.  A  PRELIMINARY  REPORT  ON  THE 

ARCHIEVES  OF  NEW  MEXICO. 

Reprinted  from  the  Annual  Report  of 
the  American  Historical  Association 
for  1909.  Octavo,  heavy  paper,  uncut, 
25  pp.,  $0.50. 

2.  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  NEW 

MEXICO.  In  Preparation.  A  book 
designed  to  give  a  general  view  of 
the  origin  and  development  of  edu- 
cation in  New  Mexico.  A  brief 
sketch  of  the  Spanish  and  European 
background  and  the  educational  be- 
ginnings of  the  Spanish  Southwest, 
followed  by  an  account  of  the  edu- 
cational development  of  the  colony 
under  Spain  and  Mexico,  lays  the 
foundation  for  a  more  extended  study 
of  the  movement  for  public  educa- 
tion in  the  Territory  from  1851  to 
1891  and  of  the  development  of  the 
public  school  system  and  higher  edu- 
cational institutions  since  1891. 


COPYRIGHT    1921 
BY  JOHN  H.  VAUGHAN 


.Bancroft  Library 


PREFACE 

This  book  represents  an  effort  to  organize  the  almost  four  cen- 
turies of  New  Mexican  history  into  one  continuous  narrative  at 
once  brief,  readable,  and  reliable;  and  to  present  it  in  such  form 
and  language  as  to  bring  it  within  the  grasp  of  boys  and  girls  in 
our  public  schools.  The  General  Readings  and  Special  Topics  that 
follow  each  chapter  will  furnish  the  guidance  necessary  for  more 
mature  students  in  the  high  schools  and  normal  schools.  It  marks 
an  advance  over  previous  books  in  the  same  field  in  three  important 
respects : 

1.  The  story  of  the  State  has  been  lifted  out  of  the  class  of 
local  chronicles  and  treated  on  the  large  plane  of  American  history, 
portraying  the  development  of  New  Mexico  from  the  earliest  times 
to  the  present  day,  not  in  isolation,  but  as  a  part  of  the  history 
of  the  great  Southwest  and  in  its  true  relation  to  the  whole  of 
North  America. 

2.  The  results  of  historical  and  scientific  research  in  the  history 
of   the   Southwest  during  recent  years  have  been  taken  into   full 
account,  not  as   footnotes  to  pages  of  doubtful  text,  but  as  part 
of  the  warp  and  woof  of  the  narrative  itself.     If,  therefore,  the 
work  differs  at  many  points  from  current  traditions  preserved  in 
local  chronicles,  the  reader  will  not  need  to  infer  that  the  writer 
was  unaware  of  those  traditions. 

3.  The   period   since   the    Civil   War  has   been   organized   and 
brought  into  proper  perspective  so  that  the  big  events  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  Territory  and  the  beginnings  of  the  State  may 
be  not  only  known  but  understood. 

This  method  of  treatment  has  necessitated  the  exclusion  of  many 
interesting  episodes  and  dramatic  scenes  as  well  as  descriptions 
of  numerous  places  and  objects  of  great  human  interest,  because, 
however  interesting  in  themselves,  they  have  had  little  direct  bear- 
ing on  the  historic  development  of  the  State. 

Space  does  not  permit  mentioning  even  the  names  of  all  who 
have  generously  assisted  me.  Yet  I  cannot  deny  myself  the  pleasure 
of  acknowledging  my  indebtedness  to  my  distinguished  friend  and 
teacher,  Professor  Herbert  E.  Bolton,  of  the  University  of  Cali- 

i 


PREFACE 

fornia;  to  Dr.  Charles  \V.  Hackett,  of  the  University  of  Texas; 
to  Professor  Aurelio  M.  Espinosa,  of  Leland  Stanford  University; 
to  Professors  Roscoe  R.  Hill  and  Charles  F.  Coan,  of  the  University 
of  New  Mexico;  and  to  Mr.  Lansing  B.  Bloom,  of  the  school  of 
American  Research,  whose  knowledge  of  the  Southwest  has  been 
constantly  at  my  disposal.  Chief  Justice  Clarence  J.  Roberts,  of 
the  State  Supreme  Court,  and  Vice  President  Charles  E.  Hodgin, 
of  the  University  of  New  Mexico,  have  read  the  section  on  Govern- 
ment and  corrected  many  errors.  My  colleagues,  Professors  Alva 
P.  Taylor  and  Merritt  L.  Hoblit  and  Mr.  Clarence  P.  Wilson,  of 
the  State  Agricultural  College,  have  given  valuable  assistance  in 
putting  the  manuscript  into  final  shape  and  reading  the  proof.  My 
wife  has  been  the  ever-present  counselor  through  the  years  of 
preparation. 

Though  their  counsel  and  advice  have  saved  my  feet  from 
unmerous  pitfalls  in  every  part  of  the  work,  they  are  not  responsible 
for  any  of  the  imperfections  and  errors  that  remain  in  the  text. 
These  are  my  own ;  and  any  teacher,  pupil,  or  other  reader  who 
discovers  an  error  and  brings  it  to  my  attention  for  correction  in 
a  later  edition  will  receive  my  sincere  thanks. 

JOHN  H.  VAUGHAN 
State  College,  New  Mexico 
August,  1921 


CONTENTS 

PART  I 
THE  HISTORY   OF  NEW  MEXICO 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I  THE  LAND  AND  THE  PEOPLE 3 

II  THE  COMING  OF  THE  WHITE  MAN    .        .        .        .17 

III  EXPLORATION  AND  CONQUEST,  1540-1595  ...      26 

IV  PERMANENT  SETTLEMENT,  1598-1609         ...      44 
V  EXPANSION  AND  OVERTHROW,  1609-1680  ...      55 

VI    RECONQUEST  AND  NORTHEASTERN  EXPANSION,  1680- 

1762 67 

VII    THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  SPANISH  ERA,  1762-1821   .        .      80 

VIII    THE  MEXICAN  PERIOD,  1822-1846 101 

IX    THE  AMERICAN  OCCUPATION 128 

X    PROVISIONAL  GOVERNMENT,  1846-1851       .        .        .144 
XI    BEGINNINGS  OF  THE  TERRITORY,  1851-1861      .        .155 
XII    THE  CIVIL  WAR  AND  THE  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  INDIAN 

PROBLEM 169 

XIII  RAILROADS  AND  ECONOMIC  DEVELOPMENT         .        .    188 

XIV  EDUCATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT  SINCE  1850.        .        .    213 
XV    THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  STATEHOOD       .        .        .        .235 


PART  II 
THE   GOVERNMENT  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

XVI    THE  STATE  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT   .        .  261 

XVII    CIVIL  AND  POLITICAL  RIGHTS 267 

XVIII    NOMINATIONS  AND  ELECTIONS 273 

iii 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XIX    THE  STATE  LEGISLATURE 281 

XX  THE  STATE  EXECUTIVE  DEPARTMENT        ...  296 

XXI    THE  COURTS  OF  THE  STATE 307 

XXII    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM 319 

XXIII  COUNTY  GOVERNMENT 330 

XXIV  CITIES,  TOWNS,  AND  VILLAGES  .....  338 
XXV  PENAL  AND  CHARITABLE  INSTITUTIONS      .       .        .  345 


MAPS 

PAGE 

New  Mexican  Pueblos  To-day .11 

Southwestern  Explorations,  1527-1598 20 

Onate's  Explorations,  1598-1609 46 

Benavides's  Proposed  Route  to  Santa  Fe     .        .        .        .        .59 
Trade  and  Expansion  in  the  Seventeenth  Century      ...      60 

The  Coming  of  the  French 73 

Exploration  and  Expansion  in  the  Eighteenth  Century      .        .      82 

First  Quarter  of  the  Nineteenth  Century 88 

Spanish  Settlements,  1760 96 

Famous  Southwestern  Trails          .        .        ...        .        .        .     108 

The  Seven  Counties  of  New  Mexico,   1846        .        .        .        .124 

Theater  of  the  Mexican  War 131 

New  Mexico  as  Bounded  by  the  "State"  Constitution  of  1850    .     150 
The   First   Division   of   the   Territory   of    New    Mexico   into 

Counties,  1851-1852 157 

Civil  War  Operations  in  New  Mexico,  1861-1862        .        .        .170 
Judicial  Districts 311 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

The  Palace  of  the  Governors  at  Santa  Fe 2 

Prehistoric  Ruins  at  Aztec 6 

Cliff  Dwellings  in  the  Frijoles  Canyon 7 

A  Kiva  at  Isleta 9 

A  Navajo  Hogan 14 

North  Wing  of  the  Aztec  Ruin 15 

Hernando  Cortes ..18 

The  Terraces  of  Zuni 23 

Coronado  Captures  Zuni 27 

Prehistoric  Pictographs .36 

Basket  Dance,  San   Ildefonso .40 

Old  San  Miguel  Church,  Santa  Fe        .        .        ...        .        .56 

Spanish  Mission  Church  at  Acoma,  Begun  about  1630        .        .  57 

San  Juan  Pueblo  To-day 63 

The  Coat  of  Arms  of  Governor  De  Vargas       ....  67 

Primitive  Mining 84 

Old  Spanish  Fort  at  the  Santa  Rita  Copper  Mine        ...  86 

Lieutenant  Zebulon  M.   Pike 90 

The  North  Pueblo  of  Taos  To-day 94 

A    Pathfinder   of    Civilization 102 

Ceran  St.  Vrain 103 

Bent's  Fort  on  the  Arkansas 105 

Bent's  Fort,  a  Restoration 106 

The  Grave  of  Kit  Carson  at  Taos        .        .        .     .    .        .        .  110 

Governor  Manuel  Armijo 112 

A  Caravan  Entering  Santa  Fe 115 

A  Pack  Train 119 

Spanish  and  Mexican  Carts 120 

A  Santa  Fe  Street  Scene  in  the  Forties 123 

President  James  K.  Polk,  1845-1849 129 

General  Stephen  W.  Kearny 133 

Kearny's  Army  on  the  March 134 

General  Kearny  Addressing  the  People  at  Las  Vegas        .        .  135 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

General  Kearny  Addressing  the   People  in  Santa  Fe,  August 

19,  1846 .  .  .136 

Donaciano  Vigil 138 

Governor  Charles  Bent 144 

A  Modern  Taos  Type  .  .  . 145 

Colonel  Sterling  Price 147 

The  Overland  Stage  Crossing  a  Mountain  Pass  .  .  .153 

Governor  James  S.  Calhoun 156 

Fort  Bliss  in  the  Fifties 158 

Fort  Defiance  in  the  Fifties 160 

Indians  Attacking  the  Overland  Stage 165 

Colonel  John  R.  Baylor 171 

Colonel  E.  R.  S.  Canby 172 

Fort  Union  in  the  Fifties 173 

Civil  War  Cannon  Buried  at  Albuquerque  by  the  Confederates  175 
American  Indian  Fighters  on  the  Desert  Quenching  Their 

Thirst  with  Blood  from  Their  Own  Veins  .  .  .  .  .  177 

Geronimo .178 

Kit  Carson  Monument,  Santa  Fe  .  .  .  ,  .  .  .179 

On  the  Trail  of  Geronimo 181 

General  George  H.  Crook 182 

The  Old  Chisum  Ranch  near  Roswell 185 

Cattle  Seeking  Water 190 

Crossing  Raton  Mountains  by  the  Swith-back  Before  Digging 

the  Tunnel 191 

Herd  of  Buffalo  Stopping  a  Train 192 

Rambouillets  on  the  Range 195 

John  S.  Chisum,  "Cattle  King" 196 

The  "Rocker"  in  a  Mining  Camp 199 

Modern  Steam  Shovel  Operations,  Santa  Rita  Copper  Mines  .  201 

Apple  Orchard  in  Bloom,  Pecos  Valley 203 

Flowing  Artesian  Well  in  the  Pecos  Valley  ....  205 

The  Elephant  Butte  Dam 208 

Harvest  Time  in  the  Pecos  Valley 209 

St.  Michael's  College,  Santa  Fe 214 

First  Protestant  Church  in  New  Mexico,  Santa  Fe,  Built  by 

Baptists,  1853 215 

Spanish-American  Normal  School  ......  218 

Hiram  Hadley,  Pioneer  Educator 220 

New  Mexico  Normal  School,  Silver  City 221 

Main  Building,  New  Mexico  Normal  University  .  .  .  223 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

A   Campus    View,   New   Mexico   College   of   Agriculture    and 

Mechanic  Arts 227 

Views  of  the  University  of  New  Mexico 229 

Administration  Building,  New  Mexico  School  of  Mines     .        .  230 

New  Mexico  Military  Institute       .......  231 

General  Nelson  A.  Miles .238 

Herefords  on  the  Range  To-day    .......  240 

Governor  William  C.  McDonald 243 

Villa  Bandits  in  the  State  Penitentiary 247 

Governor  E.  C.  DeBaca 248 

Governor  W.  E.  Lindsey 250 

Colonel  E.  C.  Abbott 251 

Colonel  Charles  M.  de  Bremond 252 

Major  Joseph  Quesenberry      ........  253 

Governor  O.  A.  Larrazolo       . 254 

Governor  Merritt  C.  Mechem         .......  255 

The  State  Capitol,  Santa  Fe 260 

Consolidated  Rural  School  in  Curry  County        ....  321 

Chaves  County  Court  House 331 


PART  I 
THE  HISTORY  OF   NEW  MEXICO 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  LAND  AND  THE  PEOPLE 
I.  THE  LAND 

1.  Location  and  Size.  —  New  Mexico  is  situated  at  the 
south  end  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Division  of  States,  be- 
tween the  parallels  31°  20'  and  37°  north  latitude,  and  the 
meridians    103°    and    109°    west    longitude.     Its    average 
width  from  east  to  west  is  335  miles ;    its  extreme  length 
from  north  to  south,  390  miles;  and  its  total  area,  122,634 
square  miles.     It  is  the  fourth  State  in  size  among  the  forty- 
eight.     If  the  six  New  England  States  and  New  Jersey, 
Delaware,  and  Pennsylvania  were  spread  out  on  its  sur- 
face, there  would  still  be  790  square  miles  of  ground  un- 
covered. 

2.  Principal  Geographic  Features.  —  The  whole  State 
lies  in  the  high  plateau  region  of  the  southern  Rocky  Moun- 
tains on  the  backbone  of  the  continent,    and    sends  its 
waters  part  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  part  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean.     This  great  mountain  ridge  varies  in  altitude  from 
13,000  feet  in  the  Sangre  de  Cristo   (san'gra  da  kres'to) 
Range  in  the  north  to  4,000  feet  in  the  south,  with  numer- 
ous irregular,  outlying  ranges.     The  White  Mountains  rise 
to  almost  14,000  feet. 

The  State  falls  naturally  into  three  distinct  regions :  the 
great  western  plateau,  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande 
(re'6  gran'da),  and  the  broad  eastern  plain.  The  altitude 
of  most  of  the  northern  and  western  part  ranges  from 

3 


4  THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

6,000  to  8,000  feet,  that  of  the  southeastern  falls  as  low  as 
3,000,  and  the  average  for  the  whole  State  is  about  5,000 
feet.  Its  waters  fall  into  three  great  drainage  basins. 
The  northeastern  portion  is  tributary  to  the  Mississippi 
through  the  Arkansas,  Canadian,  and  Red  rivers ;  the 
central  and  southeastern  portion  sends  its  waters  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  through  the  Rio  Grande  and  its  chief  tribu- 
tary, the  Pecos  (pa'kos) ;  and  the  western  portion,  lying  in 
the  Colorado  (ko-lp-ra'tho)  River  basin  of  the  Pacific 
slope,  is  drained  by  the  San  Juan  (san  hwan),  Little  Colo- 
rado, and  Gila  (he'la)  rivers.  Of  all  these  streams  the  Rio 
Grande  is  the  most  important.  Flowing  through  the 
whole  length  of  the  State  from  north  to  south,  it  includes 
within  its  drainage  basin  the  homes  of  nearly  half  the 
people  of  the  State.  Without  its  waters  the  fertile  valleys 
of  central  New  Mexico  would  be  parts  of  the  desert. 

3.  Climate.  —  Although  the  State  lies  in  the  same  lati- 
tude as  the  Carolinas,  Tennessee,  and  northern  Georgia, 
Alabama,  and  Mississippi,  its  high  altitude  and  dry  air 
give  complete  relief  from  the  disagreeable  effects  of  extreme 
heat  and  humidity.  The  prevailing  winds  from  the  Pacific 
lose  most  of  their  moisture  while  coming  across  the  high 
mountains  farther  to  the  west.  Only  the  occasional  winds 
from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  bring  much  rain,  and  the  average 
annual  rainfall  of  the  State  is  barely  fifteen  inches.  On 
some  of  the  plains  country  it  is  as  low  as  six  or  seven  inches. 
In  a  few  mountain  sections  of  the  north  and  west  it  runs 
as  high  as  twenty-five  or  thirty  inches.  The  skies  are 
clear,  sunshine  is  abundant,  and,  except  in  the  high,  moun- 
tain regions,  heavy  snows  are  almost  unknown.  The 
result  is  a  pure,  dry  atmosphere,  warm  in  the  sun  in  winter 
and  cool  in  the  shade  in  summer,  in  which  evaporation 


THE  LAND  AND   THE   PEOPLE  5 

goes  on  rapidly,  bodily  comfort  is  at  the  maximum,  and 
conditions  for  human  health  and  development  are  as  good 
as  can  be  found  anywhere  in  the  world. 

4.  Influence  of  Geography  on  History.  -  -  These  geo- 
graphic and  climatic  conditions  have  greatly  influenced 
the  State's  history.  The  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande,  walled 
in  by  high  mountains  on  the  east  and  west,  was  the  natural 
highway  for  people  coming  from  the  south.  Up  this  valley 
came  the  Spanish  conquerors  and  colonizers  of  the  State. 
In  later  centuries  French  and  American  pioneers  from  the 
Mississippi  Valley  were  led  into  the  northeastern  region 
by  the  Arkansas,  the  Canadian,  and  the  Red.  Apache 
(a-pa/cha)  Canyon  opened  the  gates  of  the  Rockies  and 
allowed  them  to  enter  the  region  of  Santa  Fe  (san'ta  fa/). 
Later  still  the  Gila  and  San  Juan  valleys  pointed  the  way 
through  the  western  mountains  to  the  Pacific  coast. 

In  like  manner  the  slight  rainfall  limited  the  Spanish 
colonization  of  New  Mexico  to  a  narrow  ribbon  of  settle- 
ments along  the  river  valleys  where  there  was  flowing 
water  for  irrigation ;  while  millions  of  acres  of  arid  plains 
for  grazing  purposes  made  stock  raising  the  principal 
industry.  New  Mexico  was  the  greatest  sheep  raising 
province  in  the  Mexican  Republic. 

II.  THE  PEOPLE 

6.  The  Pueblo  Indians.  —  The  term  "  Pueblo " 
(pweb'16),  the  Spanish  word  for  village,  was  applied  by 
the  Spaniards  to  all  of  the  tribes  living  in  stone  or  adobe 
(a-tho'ba)  houses  grouped  together  in  compact,  permanent 
villages,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Indians  of  the  plains, 
who  had  no  fixed  habitations.  The  Pueblos  occupied  the 
country  from  northeastern  Arizona  east  to  the  Pecos  River, 


6  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

and  from  Taos  (ta'os)  in  the  north  to  just  below  modern 
El  Paso,  and  numbered  probably  25,000  people  living  in 
sixty  or  seventy  villages  at  the  time  the  Spaniards  first 
came  to  New  Mexico.  Their  ancestors,  the  Cliff  Dwellers, 
had  occupied  parts  of  a  much  larger  area,  extending  farther 
north  and  south,  and  west  to  the  Colorado  River ;  and  had 
built  their  houses  in  great  canyon  walls  or  almost  inacces- 
sible cliffs  of  rock,  where  they  could  more  easily  defend 
them  against  savage  enemies. 

But  the  Pueblos  of  historic   times  usually  built  their 
communal   houses,    also   called   "  pueblos,"    in   the   river 


PREHISTORIC  RUINS  AT  AZTEC 


valleys  or  on  top  of  high  mesas  (ma'sa).  These  pueblos 
contained  many  small  rooms  grouped  together  in  irregular 
fashion,  sometimes  in  a  solid  square,  sometimes  in  a  hollow 
square,  and  in  numerous  other  irregular  outlines.  They 
were  usually  several  stories  high,  each  story  being  smaller 
than  the  one  below.  There  were  no  outside  doors.  The 
entrance  was  by  means  of  ladders  and  trapdoors  in  the 
top  of  the  rooms  of  each  story.  When  these  ladders  were 
drawn  up  from  the  ground,  the  pueblo  became  a  fortress 


THE   LAND   AND   THE   PEOPLE 


Courtesy  of  the  School  of  American  Research 

CLIFF  DWELLINGS  IN  THE  FRIJOLES  CANYON 


8  THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

against  the  attack  of  marauding  enemies,  and  was  impreg- 
nable until  the  Spaniards  came  with  artillery.  Since  the 
American  Occupation  the  danger  has  passed,  and  many 
pueblos  now  have  doors  opening  on  the  ground  floor. 

In  the  high  northwestern  region  where  sandstone  was 
abundant  the  houses  were  commonly  built  of  that  material, 
and  in  the  lower  valley  regions  adobe,  or  sun-dried  brick, 
was  used.  But  whatever  the  material,  the  work  of  building 
these  wonderful  "  cities  "  was  done  chiefly  by  the  women, 
with  help  from  the  men  only  in  quarrying  stone  or  bringing 
and  putting  into  place  the  heavy  beams  used  in  making 
the  roof.  And  all  of  the  work  was  done  by  the  hands  of 
men  and  women,  for  the  Pueblos  had  no  horses  or  other 
beasts  of  burden  until  the  Spaniards  brought  them  in  the 
sixteenth  century. 

Many  of  these  massive  structures  have  been  destroyed 
by  the  ravages  of  time  and  by  the  Pueblos'  wild  Apache, 
Navajo  (na/va-ho),  Ute,  and  Comanche  enemies,  or  aban- 
doned for  fear  of  these  enemies.  Acoma  (a'ko-ma),  the 
Sky  City,  "  the  strangest  and  strongest  that  there  can  be 
in  the  world,"  on  its  tall  perpendicular  cliff  in  Valencia 
County,  is  believed  to  be  the  only  pueblo  inhabited  to-day 
that  was  standing  when  Coronado  (ko-ro-na/tho)  and 
Onate  (6-nya'ta)  came  to  New  Mexico  The  others,  in  the 
intervening  centuries,  have  been  rebuilt,  some  of  them 
several  times  and  even  on  different  locations. 

6.  The  Kiva.  —  In  the  courtyard  or  elsewhere  near  each 
pueblo  were  the  kivas  (ke'va),  one  for  each  clan.  These 
kivas,  called  estufas  (es-too'fa)  by  the  Spaniards,  were 
ceremonial  chambers,  round  or  square,  generally  under- 
ground, entered  by  ladders  through  a  trapdoor  in  the  top, 
and  heated  in  very  cold  weather  by  a  fire  built  in  a  pit  in 


THE  LAND   AND  THE   PEOPLE  9 

the  center  of  the  floor.  The  kiva  was  the  center  of  the 
life  of  the  clan.  In  it  the  men  assembled  to  discuss  war 
and  peace,  to  engage  in  religious  rites,  and  to  prepare  for 
the  great  pagan  festivals  and  other  ceremonial  occasions. 
Into  it  no  woman  was  allowed  to  enter,  and  in  it  ceremonies 
are  still  performed  which  no  white  man  has  ever  witnessed. 


1 


A    KlVA    AT   ISLETA 

Though  the  houses  belong  to  the  women,  the  kivas  belong 
to  the  men. 

7.  Pueblo  Industries.  —  The  chief  manufactures  carried 
on  by  the  Pueblos  at  the  time  the  Spaniards  came  were 
basket  making,  pottery,  the  dressing  of  skins,  the  weaving 
of  cotton  for  their  rude  clothing,  and  the  making  of  weapons. 
They  made  shields  and  bucklers  of  buffalo  hide  and  used 
strong  bows  with  flint-pointed  arrows  that  would  pierce  a 
Spaniard's  coat  of  mail.  Their  clothing  was  almost  wholly 


10  THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

of  deer  skin  and  coarse  cotton  cloth,  though  they  began  to 
use  wool  for  making  clothing  and  blankets  soon  after  the 
Spaniards  brought  sheep  to  the  country.  They  were  fond 
of  wearing  ornamental  jewelry  and  trinkets,  particularly 
turquoise  necklaces  and  earrings. 

In  the  valleys  near  their  villages  they  carried  on  inten- 
sive agriculture  or  horticulture  with  regular  systems  of 
irrigation  from  flowing  streams  or  reservoirs.  In  the 
southern  valleys  this  work  was  done  on  a  considerable 
scale.  The  chief  crop  was  corn,  the  mainstay  of  Indian 
life.  Cotton,  pumpkins,  melons,  beans,  chile  (che'la),  and 
onions  were  grown,  though  in  smaller  quantities.  Wheat, 
peaches,  and  apples  were  unknown. 

Part  of  their  living  came  from  the  chase.  Deer,  ante- 
lope, and  mountain  lion  were  abundant,  and  buffalo  could 
be  had  in  the  eastern  sections.  Turkeys  in  great  numbers 
seem  to  have  been  domesticated  and  herded  like  sheep, 
though  the  Pueblos  had  no  sheep,  cattle,  or  horses.  The 
dog  was  their  only  domestic  animal. 

8.  Social  and  Religious  Customs. — The  social  life  of 
the  Pueblos  is  simple,  yet  curiously  interesting.  The  men 
cultivate  the  fields,  spin,  weave,  knit,  and  make  clothing. 
The  women  bring  up  the  children,  carry  the  water,  grind 
the  meal,  prepare  the  food,  and  make  the  pottery.  Mar- 
riage is  arranged  by  the  bride's  parents  and  the  priests  of 
the  clans.  In  1565  Castaneda  (kas-ta-nya/tria)  wrote: 
"  When  any  man  wishes  to  marry  .  .  '.  [he]  has  to  spin  and 
weave  a  blanket  and  place  it  before  the  woman,  who 
covers  herself  with  it  and  becomes  his  wife."  The  husband 
then  goes  to  live  with  his  wife,  becomes  a  member  of  her 
clan,  lives  in  her  house,  and  their  children  belong  to  her 
clan  and  take  her  name,  not  his.  Only  the  wife  has  the 


THE   LAND   AND   THE   PEOPLE 


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NEW  MEXICAN 
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^vaNnoa  vH02,ay 

I  2  THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

right  of  divorce,  which  she  may  exercise  for  very  slight 
reasons,  dismissing  the  husband  from  her  house  and  clan 
and  sencing  him  back  to  live  with  his  own  people.  In  that 
case  either  may  marry  again. 

Although  the  Pueblos  readily  accepted  the  outward 
forms  and  ceremonies  of  Catholic  Christianity,  they  are  to 
this  day  stanchly  pagan  at  heart  and  still  cling  to  their 
ancient  beliefs  and  ceremonies.  Each  tribe  is  divided  into  a 
number  of  clans  based  on  kinship.  Each  clan  has  its  own 
priests  who  preside  over  its  religious  ceremonies.  Their 
mythology  and  religious  beliefs  are  too  complicated  for 
brief  outline.  Some  of  their  rites  are  performed  in  secret, 
though  other  elaborate  and  impressive  ceremonies,  such  as 
their  "  dances,"  are  the  occasion  for  great  public  festivity. 
The  chief  object  of  all  these  rites  is  rain.  The  Pueblos' 
very  existence  depends  on  their  crops ;  and  in  this  arid  re- 
gion it  is  always  uncertain  whether  there  will  be  rain  enough 
to  mature  the  corn.  Believing  that  there  are  great  reser- 
voirs stored  up  in  the  heavens,  the  Pueblos  seek  the  favor  of 
those  above,  who  control  the  rain  and  therefore  the  harvest. 

9.  The  Wild  Tribes.  —  The  half-civilized  and  unwarlike 
Pueblos  were  not  the  only  inhabitants  of  the  region.  The 
Navajos  in  the  northwest,  the  Utes  in  the  north,  and  the 
Apaches  everywhere  haunted  rather  than  inhabited  the 
country  from  Chihuahua  (che-wa'wa)  to  the  Colorado 
mountains  and  from  Arizona  to  the  plains  of  Texas  and 
Oklahoma.  They  and  their  roving  kinsmen,  the  Coman- 
ches,  who  drifted  in  from  the  east  at  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  were  constant  enemies  of  the  Pueblos, 
always  ready  to  take  advantage  of  every  opportunity  to 
plunder  and  steal.  They  were  equally  ready  to  greet  the 
Spaniards  with  tomahawk  and  scalping  knife. 


THE   LAND   AND   THE   PEOPLE  13 

The  Apaches  had  swarmed  in  from  the  eastern  plains 
in  the  sixteenth  century  and  spread  over  the  whole  region 
by  the  time  the  Spainards  planted  their  first  settlement 
at  San  Juan  (1598).  Southwestern  New  Mexico  and 
southeastern  Arizona  became  their  principal  haunt.  They 
lived  largely  on  wild  seeds,  fruits,  the  products  of  the 
chase,  and  a  little  corn  whenever  they  could  steal  it  from 
the  Pueblos  and  Spaniards.  Though  they  now  have  some 
stock  and  do  a  little  rude  farming,  they  still  live  much  as 
they  did  centuries  ago.  They  are  skilled  makers  of  bas- 
kets and  water-bottles.  Predatory  and  warlike  by  nature, 
they  are  learning  the  ways  of  civilized  life  with  exceeding 
slowness. 

The  Navajos  in  the  northwest  are  kinsmen  of  the  Apaches. 
The  early  Spaniards  called  them  Navajo  Apaches,  from  the 
Indian  word  apachu  (a-pa-choo') ,  enemy,  which  the  Zuiiis 
(zoo'nye)  applied  to  them.  Formerly  they  were  poor 
hunters  and  herdsmen  leading  a  wild,  nomadic  life.  Now 
they  are  self-supporting  and  prosperous.  They  are  expert 
silversmiths,p  and  their  blankets  are  famous  all  over  the 
country.  They  live  a  simple  life,  commonly  under  an 
arbor,  or  shelter  of  brush,  in  the  summer ;  and  in  winter, 
in  a  cone-shaped  lodge,  or  "  hogan  "  (ho'gan),  made  of 
poles  leaned  together  at  the  top  and  covered  with  bark  and 
earth  or  other  material.  The  house  and  the  goods  in  it, 
except  the  weapons  and  equipment  of  the  husband,  belong 
to  the  wife.  .The  children  also  belong  to  her  and  her  clan. 
These  social  customs  together  with  their  religious  rites 
and  ceremonies  point  to  their  probable  kinship  with  the 
Pueblos. 

10.  The  Spaniards.  —  New  Mexico  was  discovered  and 
settled  by  Spaniards,  many  of  them  born  and  bred  in  old 


THE   HISTORY   OF   NEW   MEXICO 


Spain  in  the  greatest  age  of  Spanish  history.  They  were 
heroic  explorers  and  colonizers,  unafraid  of  danger  and 
ready  to  suffer  any  hardships  in  order  to  spread  the  in- 
fluence of  their  religion,  to  extend  the  power  of  their  native 
land,  and  to  win  wealth  and  personal  honor  for  themselves. 

With  them  they  brought 
as  their  heritage  the 
Spanish  language,  Span- 
ish traditions  and  cus- 
toms, and  the  Catholic 
faith.  In  this  far-off 
wilderness  they  found 
only  Indian  neighbors, 
and  for  two  centuries 
they  had  little  direct  con- 
tact  with  other  peoples  of 
the  white  race.  They 
gave  little  attention  to 
learning  the  Indian  dialects,  but  tried  to  teach  the  Indians 
Spanish  instead.  Their  language  continued  to  be  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  century  Spanish  with  but  little  Indian  or 
other  foreign  influence  except  among  the  lower  classes  who 
married  Indian  wives.  The  speech  of  the  pure-blood 
Spaniard  in  New  Mexico,  therefore,  continues  to  be  of  pure 
Spanish  origin. 

11.  The  French  and  Americans.  —  After  about  1 740 
an  occasional  Frenchman  found  his  way  into  New  Mexico 
from  the  Mississippi  Valley.  Now  and  then  one  settled 
down  and  stayed  in  the  country ;  but,  until  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  they  had  little  influence  on  the 
life  of  the  colony.  Then,  after  the  United  States  pur- 
chased Louisiana  in  1803,  a  small  stream  of  American  ex- 


THE  LAND  AND   THE   PEOPLE  15 

plorers,  fur  traders,  trappers,  merchants,  and  adventurers 
began  to  move  this  way.  At  first  the  numbers  were  not 
large,  but  this  was  the  beginning  of  that  famous  American 
Pioneer  element  that  became  more  numerous  and  influ- 
ential after  1825.  And  whether  they  were  of  French, 
English,  Scotch,  or  Irish  descent,  they  were  true  Americans 
-  the  product  of  the  pioneering  spirit  of  the  American 
West.  Many  of  them  settled  down,  married  Spanish 
women  out  of  the  best  New  Mexican  families,  became 


NORTH  WING  OF  THE  AZTEC  RUIN 

Showing  Sandstone  Pueblo  Structure  in  Excellent  State  of  Preservation. 

influential  members  of  society,  and  some  of  them  became 
wealthy.  After  the  American  Occupation  of  New  Mexico 
in  1846  their  number  was  increased  considerably,  though 
there  was  still  no  great  tide  of  immigration  until  a  genera- 
tion later,  when,  in  the  spring  of  1879,  the  .first  railroad 
came  through  Raton  (ra-ton')  Pass  into  northeastern  New 
Mexico.  Since  then  the  tide  has  flowed  on  unchecked,  and 
to-day  (1920)  the  population  is  fairly  evenly  divided  between 
people  of  Spanish  descent  and  those  of  Anglo-American 
origin,  with  the  proportion  of  the  latter  steadily  increasing. 
How  these  peoples  have  built  up  here  the  great  common- 
wealth of  New  Mexico  is  the  story  told  in  this  book. 


16  THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW  MEXICO 


GENERAL  READINGS 

W.  W.  H.  DAVIS,  The  Spanish  Conquest  of  New  Mexico,  17-113. 

L.  B.  PRINCE,  A  Concise  History  of  New  Mexico,  13-51. 

B.  M.  READ,  Illustrated  History  of  New  Mexico,  33-56. 

R.  E.  TWITCHELL,  The  Leading  Facts  of  New  Mexican  History,  I,  3-50. 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

1.  THE  PUEBLO  INDIANS.     F.  W.  Hodge,  Handbook  of  American  Indians, 
II,  316-325;   L.  Farrand,  Basis  of  American  History  ("American  Nation" 
Series,  II),  181-187;   C.  F.  Lumnis,  The  Land  of  Poco  Tiempo,  27-74,  109- 
154,  251-310. 

2.  INDIAN  SOCIETY  AND   RELIGION.    L.   Farrand,  Basis  of  American 
History,  195-214. 

3.  AMERICAN  INFLUENCE  ON  NEW  MEXICAN  SPANISH.     A.  M.  Espinosa, 
"Speech  Mixture  in  New  Mexico,"  in  The  Pacific  Ocean  in  History,  408-428. 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Give  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  New  Mexico;   its  length,  breadth, 
and  area.     Compare  it  with  other  States. 

2.  Where  are  the  mountainous  regions?  the  plains,  the  principal  valleys? 
What  are  the  three  drainage  basins? 

3.  Why  is  the  climate  so  different  from  that  of  eastern  States  in  the  same 
latitude?     What  difference  would  it  make  in  climate  if  the  prevailing  winds 
were  from  the  east?     If  the  altitude  were  low? 

4.  Mention  three  specific  ways  in  which  geography  and  climate  have 
affected  New  Mexican  history.     Can  you  think  of  others? 

5.  Who  were  the  Cliff  Dwellers?     Give  two  meanings  of  the  word 
"pueblo."     Describe  the  houses  of  the  Pueblo  Indians.     Who  built  them? 
What  is  a  kiva? 

6.  How  did  the  Pueblos  make  their  living  before  the  Spaniards  came? 
What  did  they  eat?     What  did  they  wear?    What  kind  of  weapons  did 
they  have  ? 

7.  Wrhat  was  ''man's  work"  among  the  Pueblos?     "Woman's  work"? 
How  were  marriages  arranged?    Who  was  head  of  the  house? 

8.  What  regions  were  roamed  over  by  the  Navajos?     Apaches?     Utes? 
Comanches  ? 

9.  Where  did  the  Apaches  come  from?     How  did  they  live?    What 
progress  are  they  making? 

10.  Compare  the  Navajos  with  the  Apaches  in  mode  of  life,  industries, 
and  progress.     What  evidences  are  there  that  they  are  kin  to  the  Pueblos  ? 

11.  What  three  European  peoples  have  played  important  parts  in  the 
history  of  the  State?     When  did  each  come? 

12.  Why  should  we  study  New  Mexican  history? 


CHAPTER  II 
THE   COMING   OF  THE   WHITE   MAN 

12.  The  Discovery  of  America.  —  At  the  close  of  the 
fifteenth  century  Spain  was  rapidly  becoming  the  most 
powerful  nation  in  Europe.     She,  therefore,  became  the 
leader  in  the  great  Age  of  Discovery  and  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  her  American  empire  a  century  before  any  other 
nation  established  colonies  in  North  America.     She  fur- 
nished  Columbus  the  ships,   money,   and  sailors  for  the 
great  voyage  that  brought  him  to  the  West  India  Islands 
in  October,  1492.     A  year  later  ''December,  1493)  Columbus 
planted  the  Spanish  colony  of  Isabella  on  the  island  of 
Haiti  (ha'ti),  called  Espanola  (es-pa-nyo'la)  by  the  Span- 
iards —  the  first  permanent  European  settlement  in  the 
New  World.     During  the  next  half  century  Spain  was  the 
one  country  whose  people  added  greatly  to  the  world's 
knowledge  of  North  America.     Her  seamen  explored  the 
coast  from  Nova  Scotia  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan.     Her 
soldiers  tramped  over  the  country  from  Jamestown  to  the 
Pacific  coast. 

13.  The     Conquest    of    Mexico.  —  From    their    New- 
World  center  of  operations  in  the  West  Indies  the  restless 
Spaniards  quickly  extended  their  colonies  to  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama  and  Central  America.     In  April,  1519,  Hernando 
Cortes  (er-nan'do  kor-tas')  landed  on  the  coast  of  Mexico 
with  a  band  of  Spanish  soldiers  whom  he  had  recruited  in 
Cuba.     Founding  Vera  Cruz  (Va'ra  kroos')  at  his  landing 
place  and  destroying  his  ships  to  cut  off  retreat,  he  set 

17 


18  THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

out  inland  to  conquer  the  continent.  There  was  hard 
fighting  to  do,  but  success  lay  ahead.  By  the  middle  of 
August,  1521,  he  had  conquered  the  Aztec  (az'tek)  kingdom 

and  was  in  full  control  of  Mexico 
City  and  the  land  of  the  Monte- 
zumas  (mon-ta-soc/ma).  Two 
years  later  the  Spanish  king  ap- 
pointed him  captain  general  and 
governor  of  this  "  New  Spain  " 
(modern  Mexico). 

But  the  ambition  of  Cortes, 
one  of  the  greatest  Spaniards  of 
his  age,  was  not  satisfied.  From 
Mexico  City  as  a  new  base  of 
Spanish  power  in  America  he 
pushed  his  operations  in  all  direc- 
tions. By  October,  1531,  a  per- 
manent settlement  on  the  west 
coast  had  been  planted  as  far 
north  as  Culiacan  (koo-lya-kan') 
in  the  modern  state  of  Sinaloa 
HERNANDO  CORTES  (Se-na-lo'a). 

14.  Spaniards  Arrive  from  the  North.  —  Indian  gossips 
filled  the  ears  of  these  northward-moving  pioneers  with 
strange  stories  of  the  country  of  the  "  Seven  Cities  "  far 
away  across  the  northern  deserts  where  people  lived  in 
large  houses  and  possessed  great  wealth.  Interest  in  those 
far-off  and  unknown  regions  was  suddenly  multiplied  when 
one  day  in  April,  1536,  a  group  of  white  men  came  out  of 
the  northern  wilderness  and  walked  into  the  village  of 
Culiacan,  the  northern  outpost  of  New  Spain.  Who  were 
these  strangers?  And  whence  had  they  come? 


THE   COMING  OF  THE  WHITE  MAN  19 

15.  The  Wanderings  of  Cabeza  de  Vaca.  —  Their  leader 
was  Alvar  Nunez  Cabeza  de  Vaca  (al'var  noo'nyas  ca-ba'sa 
da  va'ka),  who  had  started  out  from  Spain  in  1527  as  royal 
treasurer  of  the  Narvaez  (nar-va'as)  expedition  for  the  set- 
tlement of  Florida.     Sharing  all  the  misfortunes  of  that 
ill-fated  expedition  in  Cuba,  Florida,  and  on  the  Gulf,  he 
was  finally  shipwrecked  on  the  coast  of  Texas  in  November, 
1528.     With   him   came   also   Andres   Dorantes    (an-dras' 
do-ran' tas),  Alonso  del  Castillo  Maldonado   (a-lon'so  del 
kas-te'yo  mal-do-na'tho),   and  Stephen,   the  Negro  slave 
of  Dorantes. 

For  seven  years  they  had  been  slaves  among  the  Indians 
of  the  Texas  coast.  Then  in  the  summer  of  1535  they 
escaped  and  started  on  their  journey  across  the  continent. 
Making  their  way  from  tribe  to  tribe  as  traders,  medicine 
men,  and  jugglers,  they  went  westward  through  Texas, 
crossed  northern  Mexico,  and  reached  the  Spanish  settle- 
ments on  the  Gulf  of  California  before  the  end  of  April, 
1536,  thus  completing  the  first  big  chapter  in  the  history 
of  North  American  travel.  Incidentally  they  had  seen  the 
great  American  buffalo  and  given  to  the  world  the  first 
description  of  it.  Perhaps,  too,  they  had  discovered  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi  a  dozen  years  before  De  Soto 
(da  so' to)  saw  it. 

16.  The  Influence  of  Vaca's  Story.  —  Although  Vaca  did 
not  pass  through  any  part  of  New  Mexico,  his  journey  had 
great  influence  on  its  history.     The  story  of  his  wanderings 
held  his  Spanish  kinsmen  spellbound.     He  and  his  com- 
panions had  lived  the  wild  and  savage  life  of  the  roving 
Indians  for  so  many  years  that  they  "  could  not  wear  any 
[clothing]  for  some  time,  nor  could  we  sleep  anywhere  else 
but  on  the  ground." 


20 


THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 


u~ -\ 

QUiyiRA        Vfit'-x 


SOUTHWESTERN 

EXPLORATION 

1527-1598 


V 


THE   COMING  OF  THE  WHITE  MAN  21 

Over  beyond  the  northern  mountains  the  Indians  had 
told  them  of  a  country  still  farther  to  the  north  from  which 
they  got  turquoises  and  emeralds,  where  the  people  built 
great  cities  and  lived  in  houses  many  stories  high  —  un- 
doubtedly the  New  Mexican  Pueblo  villages  in  the  land 
of  the  legendary  Seven  Cities.  This  was  the  first  word 
about  New  Mexico  ever  carried  to  New  Spain  by  any  white 
man.  It  fired  the  imagination  of  the  Spanish  conquerors 
and  led  directly  to  the  discovery  of  New  Mexico  by  Friar 
Marcos  de  Niza  (mar'kos  da  ne'sa)  and  the  exploration 
by  Coronado. 

THE  DISCOVERY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

17.  The    Conquistadores.  —  The    early    Spaniards    in 
North  America  represented  the  spirit  and  energy  of  Spain 
in  her  greatest  century.     Their  achievements  in  the  con- 
quest of  Central  America,  Peru,  and  Mexico  gave  them  a 
new  sense  of  the  dignity  and  worth  of  the  individual  Spanish 
pioneer.     They  were  the  conquistador -es  (kon-kes-ta-tho'ras) , 
conquerors,  who  gloried  in  overrunning  vast  new  regions  and 
conquering  them  for  the  Spanish  dominions.     Men  filled 
with  such  a  spirit  could  not  fail  tc  be  stirred  by  the  roman- 
tic story  of  Vaca's  wonderful  journey  across  the  continent. 
Antonio  de  Mendoza  (an-to'nyo  da  men-do'sa),  the  pro- 
gressive viceroy,  began  immediate  preparations  for  a  great 
military  expedition  into  these  northern  lands.     But  before 
undertaking  so  ambitious  and  expensive  an  enterprise  he 
thought  it  wise  to  send  out  a  small  exploring  party  to  learn 
more  of  the  country. 

18.  Friar  Marcos  de  Niza.  —  The  man  selected  to  lead 
this  exploring  party  was  Marcos  de  Niza,  a  Franciscan 
friar  who  had  been  with  Pizarro  (pe-sar'ro)  in  the  conquest 


22  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

of  Peru  and  then  had  been  a  frontier  missionary  in  the 
northern  portion  of  New  Spain.  For  guide  he  was  to  have 
Stephen,  the  Negro  slave  who  had  accompanied  Cabeza 
de  Vaca.  With  them  went  six  Indian  interpreters  who  had 
been  at  Mexico  City  learning  the  Spanish  language  and 
Christian  customs. 

This  lone  frontier  missionary  priest  and  explorer,  with 
fewer  companions  than  he  had  fingers  on  his  hands,  was 
starting  out  for  a  whole  summer's  journey  through  the  un- 
known north,  with  no  trail  to  guide  his  feet  nor  any  pro- 
tection from  the  savage  tribes  through  whose  country  he 
might  travel  —  a  region  in  which  to  this  day  the  traveler 
who  strays  from  the  beaten  trail  may  easily  lose  his  life. 

19.  Friar  Marcos  Goes  Northward.  —  Setting  out  from 
Culiacan  on  March  7,  1539,  Friar  Marcos  followed  the  west 
coast   to   the   Sonora   Valley.     Stopping   there   for   some 
much-needed  rest,  he  sent  Stephen  ahead  to  explore  the 
country  and  report  to  him.     If  the  country  was  unusually 
good,  the  Negro  was  to  send  a  crosfc  two  hands  long;  if 
it  was  as  rich  and  populous  as  New  Spain,  a  still  larger 
cross.     The   fourth   day  afterward   an   Indian   messenger 
came  back  bringing  "  a  very  large  cross,  as  tall  as  a  man!  " 
The  Indian  also   told  him   that  there  were  seven  great 
cities  in  the  first  province,  with  large  houses  two,  three, 
and  four  stories  high.     They  were  built  of  stone  and  lime, 
and  the  doorways  were  ornamented  with  turquoises,  of 
which    there    was    great    abundance.     There    were    other 
provinces  further  on  much  greater  than  these  Seven  Cities. 

20.  New     Mexico    Discovered.  —  Friar    Marcos    now 
pressed  forward  over  the  burning  deserts  of  northern  Mexico 
and  southeastern  Arizona,  in  eager  search  for  the  Seven 
Cities.     But   he  did   not  overtake  Stephen.     The  Negro 


THE   COMING  OF  THE  WHITE  MAN  23 

reached  Zuni  first,  only  to  be  taken  for  a  spy  and  killed. 
One  quaint  Indian  legend  runs  that  their  wise  men  took 
him  out  of  the  pueblo  during  the  night  and  "  gave  him  a 
powerful  kick,  which  sped  him  through  the  air  back  to  the 
south,  whence  he  came  !  " 

Black  Stephen,  fully  two  hundred  miles  ahead,  had  seen 
New  Mexico  first ;  but  it  was  Friar  Marcos,  the  first  white 


-1 


THE  TERRACES  OF  ZUNI 

man  to  set  foot  on  her  soil,  who  discovered  New  Mexico 
for  the  world  and  started  the  tide  of  civilization  moving 
this  way.  From  the  top  of  a  near-by  mesa,  late  in  May, 
1539,  he  beheld  the  Zuni  pueblo  of  Hawikuh  flia-we-koo') 
in  the  western  part  of  McKinley  County.  It  was  the  first 
of  the  Seven  Cities  henceforth  to  be  known  as  the  Seven 
Cities  of  Cibola  (se'bo-la).  The  Zunis  had  been  so  aroused 
by  the  coming  of  Stephen  that  Friar  Marcos  was  not  allowed 
to  come  nearer.  Like  Moses  of  old,  he  beheld  the  Promised 


24  THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW  MEXICO 

Land,  but  was  not  allowed  to  enter.  He  erected  a  cross 
and  took  possession  of  the  country  for  Spain,  naming  it  the 
"  Kingdom  of  St.  Francis." 

21.  The  Return  of  Friar  Marcos.  —  Hastily  retracing 
his  steps,  "  with  far  more  fright  than  food,"  Marcos  was 
soon  back  in  New  Spain,  reporting  to  the  viceroy.  He  had 
discovered  New  Mexico,  seen  the  many-storied  houses  of 
the  Zunis,  some  of  whose  people  wore  turquoises  suspended 
from  their  noses  and  ears.  From  the  Indians  along  the 
way  he  had  heard  glowing  stories  of  great  cities,  populous 
nations,  and  lands  abounding  in  wealth.  These  stories 
lost  nothing  as  they  passed  from  mouth  to  mouth  among 
the  adventurers  of  the  northern  frontier  in  the  fall  of  1539. 
They  took  New  Spain  by  storm.  Everybody  wanted  to 
share  in  the  wealth  and  glory  of  conquering  the  new  land 
for  Spain.  It  looked  as  if  the  country  around  Mexico  City 
were  going  to  be  depopulated,  so  great  was  the  general 
desire  of  the  Spaniards  to  try  their  fortunes  in  the  north. 

GENERAL  READINGS 

H.  H.  BANCROFT,  History  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  1-35. 

E.  G.  BOURNE,  Spain  in  America  ("American  Nation"  Series,  III),  1-170. 

W.  W.  H.  DAVIS,  The  Spanish  Conquest  of  New  Mexico,  114-140. 

C.  F.  LUMMIS,  The  Spanish  Pioneers,  17-24,  56-70,  78-80,  101-116. 

L.  B.  PRINCE,  A  Concise  History  of  New  Mexico,  52-65. 

B.  M.  READ,  Illustrated  History  of  New  Mexico,  57-98. 

R.  E.  TWITCHELL,  The  Leading  Facts  of  New  Mexican  History,  I,  53-160. 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

i.  THE  WANDERINGS  OF  DE  VACA.  Bancroft,  as  cited  above;  A.  F. 
Bandelier,  "Contributions  to  the  History  of  the  Southwestern  Portion  of 
the  United  States,"  in  Papers  of  the  Archceological  Institute  of  America, 
American  Series,  V,  Chapter  2 ;  G.  P.  Winship,  "The  Coronado  Expedition, 
1540-1542,"  in  Fourteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  Part  I, 
345-350;  H.  Davenport  and  J.  K.  Wells,  "The  First  Europeans  in  Texas, 
1528-1536,"  in  Southwestern  Historical  Quarterly,  XXII  (Oct.,  iQi8-Jan., 


THE  COMING  OF  THE   WHITE   MAN  25 

1919),  111-142,  205-259;  F.  W.  Hodge  (ed.),  "The  Narrative  of  Alvar 
Nunez  Cabeza  de  Vaca,"  in  Spanish  Explorers  in  the  Southern  United  States 
("Original  Narratives"  Series),  1-126. 

2.  THE  DISCOVERY  BY  FRIAR  MARCOS.  A.  F.  Bandelier,  "The  Discovery 
of  New  Mexico  by  Fray  Marcos  of  Nizza,"  in  Magazine  of  Western  History, 
IV  (Sept.,  1886),  659-670;  G.  P.  Winship,  "The  Coronado  Expedition, 
1540-1542,"  353-373;  F.  W.  Hodge  (ed.),  "The  Narrative  of  the  Expedi- 
tion of  Coronado,  by  Pedro  de  Castafieda,"  in  Spanish  Explorers  in  the  South- 
ern United  States,  273-290. 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Why  was  Spain  the  leader  in  the  discovery  and  exploration  of  North 
America? 

2.  When  was  the  conquest  of  Mexico  begun?     What  kind  of  man  was 
Cor t6s  ?     What  was  "  Ne  w  Spain ' '  ? 

3.  How  did  the  Spaniards  first  learn  about  the  "  Seven  Cities "?     When 
did  they  first  hear  of  that  coujitry  from  white  men? 

4.  How  did  Cabeza  de  Vaca  come  to  be  in  the  northern  part  of  New 
Spain?     What  i  nportance  has  his  journey  for  New  Mexico  history? 

5.  Who  were  the  conquistador -es  f     Do  you  admire  their  courage  and 
daring  ? 

6.  Who  was   Friar  Marcos  de  Niza?     Stephen?     Trace  the  route  of 
their  journey  to  the  north.     Locate  Vera  Cruz,  Mexico  City,  Culiacdn,  the 
Sonora  River. 

7.  Who    discovered    New    Mexico?     When?     Where?     Find   Zuni   on 
your  map.     Wrhat  name  did  Friar  Marcos  give  to  the  country?     What  be- 
came of  Stephen  ? 

8.  What  stories  did  Marcos  hear  from  the  Indians  along  the  way?     What 
effect  did  his  report  have  in  New  Spain  that  fall  ? 


CHAPTER  III 

EXPLORATION  AND    CONQUEST,    1540-1595 
I.    THE   CORONADO   EXPEDITION,   1540-1542 

22.  A  New  Era  Begins.  —  The  report  of  Friar  Marcos 
marked  the  beginning  of  a  new  era.  The  soldiers  and  ad- 
venturers around  Mexico  City  welcomed  the  prospect  of  a 
new  field  of  operations  and  new  lands  to  conquer.  Viceroy 
Antonio  de  Mendoza  immediately  began  preparations 
for  such  an  enterprise.  He  selected  Compostela  (kom- 
po-sta'la)  on  the  Pacific  coast  as  the  assembling  place  for 
the  expedition,  and  appointed  his  friend  Francisco  Vasquez 
(vas'kas)  Coronado  as  captain  general  with  Friar  Marcos 
de  Niza  as  guide. 

February  22,  1540,  the  army  passed  in  final  review  be- 
fore the  viceroy  at  Compostela  and  the  next  day  started 
away  to  the  north.  Two  hundred  gentlemen  on  horse- 
back, clad  in  shining  helmets  and  coats  of  armor,  with 
lances  erect  and  swords  hanging  by  their  sides,  were  fol- 
lowed by  seventy  footmen  carrying  crossbows  or  swords 
and  shields.  Seven  or  eight  hundred  Indians  drove  the 
great  pack  train  loaded  with  baggage  and  supplies  and 
herded  the  stock  furnished  to  supply  the  expedition  with 
fresh  meat. 

Turning  away  up  the  coast  to  the  northwest  by  Culiacan, 
Coronado  followed  the  route  of  Friar  Marcos  and  Stephen 
the  year  before.  Going  ahead  from  Culiacan  with  an  ad- 

26 


EXPLORATION  AND   CONQUEST  27 

vance  guard,  he  reached  Zuni  on  July  7.     The  main  army 
followed  more  slowly. 

23.  Beginning  of  the  Conquest.  —  The  Zunis  had  sent 
away  their  women  and  prepared  to  defend  their  village. 
After  a  sharp  fight  led  by  Coronado  in  person,  the  Spaniards 
captured  it  and  secured  a  large  amount  of  provisions,  which 
were  now  "needed  a  great  deal  more  than  gold  or  silver." 


CORONAI.O    r.\PTi:RKS    ZlNl 

They  named  it  "  Granada  "  (gra-na'tha)  after  the  famous 
Moorish  stronghold  in  southern  Spain. 

But  they  found  no  wealth  there;  and  the  soldiers  com- 
plained so  bitterly  that  Friar  Marcos,  the  old  hero-priest 
and  guide,  now  broken  in  health  and  spirit,  returned  to 
New  Spain. 

Nor  were  the  Indians  any  better  satisfied  than  the  Span- 
iards. These  pale-faced  foreigners,  riding  on  horses,  and 
fighting  with  thundersticks  that  shot  out  flashes  of  lightning, 
filled  the  Zunis  with  dismay.  The  red  men,  therefore, 
gathered  up  such  property  as  they  could  carry  and  fled  to 


28  THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

the  top  of  Thunder  Mountain,  the  home  of   their   war 
god. 

24.  Tusayan    and    the    Grand    Canyon.  —  From    Zuni 
Coronado  began  to  direct  the  exploration  of  the  country. 
Pedro  de  Tovar  (pa7 thro  da  to-var')  with  twenty  followers 
went  to  the  northwest  and  discovered  the  Tusayan  (too- 
sa'yan)    village  in  the  Moqui  (mo'ke)  province  of  north- 
eastern Arizona.     Then  Garcia  Lopez  de  Cardenas  (gar-se'a 
lo'pas  da  kar'da-nas)  led  a  dozen  companions  across  the  desert 
beyond  Tusayan  to  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado. 

25.  Alvarado    Goes   Eastward.  —  Of    more   importance 
for  the  history  of  New  Mexico,  however,  was  the  movement 
of  Hernando  de  Alvarado  (al-va-ra'tho)  to  the  eastward, 
blazing  the  direct  trail  by  Acoma,  the  oldest  continuously 
inhabited    settlement   in   the   United    States,    to   Puaray 
(pwa-riO,   which   the   Spaniards  renamed  "  Tiguex "    (te- 
gwesh'),  the  principal  village  of  the  Tigua  (te'gwa)  Indians, 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande  near  the  modern  town 
of  Bernalillo  (ber-na-le'yo) .     The  place  was  so  attractive 
that  he  sent  word  back  to  Coronado  to  bring  the  army  there 
for  winter  quarters. 

In  the  meantime  Alvarado  went  farther  eastward.  A 
young  chief  from  Cicuye  (se-koo-ya/),  whom  the  Spaniards 
called  Bigotes  (be-go'tas),  whiskers,  had  told  him  many 
stories  of  the  buffalo  country  while  he  was  at  Zuni.  He, 
therefore,  went  over  into  the  valley  of  the  Pecos  River  to 
Cicuye  (the  pueblo  of  Pecos),  the  home  of  Bigotes,  and 
out  on  the  plains  to  about  the  present  eastern  boundary 
of  the  State.  At  Pecos  he  also  met  a  plains  Indian,  called 
"  the  Turk,"  who  told  him  glowing  tales  of  wealth  in  gold 
and  silver  to  be  found  in  his  own  country  far  to  the  east. 

26.  The  First  Winter  at  Tiguex.  —  Alvarado  returned 


EXPLORATION  AND   CONQUEST  29 

to  Tiguex,  and  by  the  end  of  November  the  entire  force 
was  encamped  there  for  the  winter.  In  need  of  supplies 
and  especially  clothing,  blankets,  and  quarters,  for  protec- 
tion against  the  unaccustomed  cold  weather,  the  Spaniards 
drove  the  Indians  out  of  one  of  their  villages  and  took  from 
them  such  things  as  they  wanted. 

It  was  a  high-handed  procedure  which  quickly  led  to  an 
Indian  revolt.  Then  the  Spaniards  took  a  bloody  ven- 
geance. For  fifty  days  they  besieged  the  village,  burning 
at  the  stake  two  hundred  Indians  who  had  laid  down  their 
arms  under  promise  of  pardon,  "  to  make  an  example  of 
them  so  that  the  other  natives  would  fear  the  Spaniards." 

Early  one  morning  the  Pueblos  fled  to  the  hills.  Some 
of  the  soldiers  pursued  and  killed  many  of  them,  while 
others  plundered  the  town.  Later  Coronado  attempted 
to  make  peace  with  them.  But  he  could  not  induce  them 
to  return  to  their  villages  until  after  the  army  left  the  next 
spring. 

27.  Tales  of  "  Quivira."  -  -  During  that  first  winter  at 
Tiguex,  while  the  Spaniards  were  laying  the  foundations 
for  Indian  hostility  for  generations  to  come,  they  were  also 
listening  to  the  fabulous  tales  which  led  them  out  on  the 
eastern  plains.     The  Turk  had  come  over  from  Cicuye  to 
tell  them  of  the  wealth  of  his  country,  Quivira  (ke-ve'ra) 
to  the  northeast,  in  the  hope  of  luring  them  out  on  the  plains 
to  die  of  thirst  —  an  easy  way  to  get  rid  of  unwelcome 
strangers. 

28.  Coronado  Goes  to  the  Eastern  Plains.  —  The  ly- 
ing tales  of  the  Turk  had  their  effect.     Coronado's  force 
broke  camp  at  Tiguex,  April  23,  1541,  and  started  in  search 
of  Quivira.     Crossing  the  mountains  by  Apache  Canyon, 
then  guided  by  the  silvery  waters  of  the  Pecos  flowing  to- 


30  THE   HISTORY   OF   NEW   MEXICO 

ward  the  southeast,  the  army  traveled  down  to  the  region 
of  Puerto  de  Luna  (pwer'to  da  loo'na),  built  a  bridge  across 
the  Pecos,  and  set  out  through  the  Clovis  country  to  the 
buffalo  plains.  For  many  days  the/  could  see  "  nothing 
but  cows  and  the  sky."  Thirty-seven  days  after  leaving 
Tiguex  they  reached  a  pleasant  river  valley,  probably  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Brazos  (bra'sos)  River  in  Texas. 

29.  The  Army  Returns  to  Tiguex.  —  By  this  time  food 
was  growing  scarce,  and  there  was  no  available  supply  ex- 
cept buffalo  meat.     None  of  the  Turk's  tales  had  come 
true  or  was  likely  to  do  so.     The  whole  army  was  in  danger. 
A  council  of  the  leaders,  therefore,  decided  to  send  the  main 
army  under  Captain  Arellano  (a-ra-ya'no)  back  to  Tiguex. 
It  returned  by  a  more  direct  route,  reaching  the  Pecos 
River  in  the  Roswell  region,  going  up  the  river  to  Pecos 
pueblo  and  over  to  Tiguex,  making  the  journey  in  twenty- 
five  days. 

On  their  appearance  the  Indians  again  fled  to  the  hills 
and  could  not  be  induced  to  return. 

The  soldiers,  sorely  disappointed  because  they  could 
not  accompany  the  General  on  his  march  to  Quivira,  turned 
their  attention  to  exploring  the  country  round  about.  By 
the  time  he  came  back  that  fall  they  had  explored  the  whole 
Pueblo  region  of  the  Rio  Grande  Valley  from  Taos  in  the 
north  to  San  Marcial  (san  mar-syal')  in  the  south.  They 
were  staking  out  a  large  claim  for  Spain. 

30.  The  March  to  Quivira.  —  From  the  Brazos  River 
country  in  western  Texas,  Coronado,  accompanied  by  thirty 
picked  horsemen  and  half  a  dozen  footmen,  marched  di- 
rectly north  to  the  Arkansas  River,  crossing  near  modern 
Dodge  City,  Kansas,  and  going  northeast  to  the  province 
of  the  Quiviras  (Wichita  Indians)  in  eastern  Kansas. 


EXPLORATION  AND  CONQUEST          31 

The  lying  Turk,  who  had  started  out  as  guide,  had  been 
in  chains  since  Coronado  left  his  army  in  western  Texas  and 
was  "  made  an  example  of  "  just  before  reaching  Quivira. 

The  Quiviras  (Wichitas)  were  barbarous,  half-naked 
plains  Indians,  living  in  straw-covered  mud  huts,  dressing 
in  buffalo  skins,  and  eating  raw  flesh.  Their  country  was 
a  disappointment.  Coronado's  captains  explored  it  for 
fifty  or  seventy-five  miles  around,  but  found  neither  gold 
nor  other  valuable  metal.  In  fact,  the  North  American 
Indian  knew  nothing  of  gold  until  he  learned  it  from  the 
white  man.  His  word  for  "  metal  "  was  the  closest  name 
to  it. 

31.  The  Second  Winter  at  Tiguex.  —  Early  in  August 
Coronado  and  his  men  started  back  to  New  Mexico  by  a 
route  close  to  the  Cimarron  (se-mar-ron')  Cut-Off  of  the 
later  Santa  Fe  Trail  (sec.  128).  By  the  middle  of  October 
they  were  again  at  Tiguex,  and  the  entire  army  had  gone 
into  winter  quarters  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Grande  for  a 
second  time. 

Coronado  was  now  a  sadder  but  wiser  man.  His  cap- 
tains, returning  empty-handed  from  a  whole  summer's 
marching  on  the  burning  plains,  were  a  downcast  lot. 
They  were  hardly  willing  to  obey  his  order  that  the  winter 
should  be  spent  in  preparation  for  taking  the  whole  force 
to  the  plains  of  eastern  Kansas  to  make  settlements  the 
following  spring.  The  long  winter  of  1541-1542  at  Tiguex 
furnished  ample  opportunity  for  heated  discussion  between 
those  who  wished  to  continue  with  the  General  and  those 
who  were  ready  to  abandon  the  whole  enterprise.  In  the 
early  spring  of  1542  Coronado  was  thrown  from  his  horse 
and  run  over  by  another  horse.  While  he  lay  at  the  point 
of  death,  the  army  formed  its  plan  to  abandon  the  country. 


32  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

32.  The  Last  Days  of  Coronado.  —  Early  in  May  the 
expedition  set  out  on  its  return  to  New  Spain.     The  home- 
ward journey  by  way  of  Acoma,  Zuni,  and  the  old  trail 
followed  two  years  before  is  of  little  interest,  though  the 
end  was  pathetic.     The  men  began  dropping  out  as  soon 
as  they  reached  the  northern  settlements,  and  the  great 
Commander  reached  Mexico  City  with  less  than  a  hundred 
followers. 

When  he  made  his  report  to  Viceroy  Mendoza  that 
autumn,  he  was  received  with  cold  indifference.  A  little 
later  he  was  relieved  of  the  governorship  of  New  Galicia  — 
and  forgotten.  He  had  led  the  grandest  exploring  expedi- 
tion ever  fitted  out  in  New  Spain;  but  instead  of  wealth 
and  honor,  he  reaped  poverty  and  obscurity. 

33.  His   Great  Achievements.  —  Coronado   had   found 
no  gold  nor  silver  nor  wealth  of  any  kind.     But  he  had 
explored  the  country  three-fourths  of  the  way  from  the 
Gulf  of  California  to  the  Great  Lakes,  traversing  Sinaloa, 
Sonora,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Texas,  Oklahoma,  and  Kan- 
sas, and  discovering  the  Grand  Canyon.     His  men  had  ex- 
plored New  Mexico  from  east  to  west  and  from  Taos  in 
the  north  to  the  region  of  San  Marcial  and  Roswell  in  the 
south. 

Though  Coronado  died  neglected  and  forgotten,  he  had 
added  more  territory  to  the  crown  of  Spain  than  any  other 
living  man,  and  his  labors  formed  the  basis  of  the  world's 
geographic  knowledge  of  the  southwestern  portion  of  North 
America. 

34.  First    Christian    Missionaries    in   New    Mexico.  - 
Christian  missionaries  were  among  the  pioneers  in  every 
Spanish  land.     Marcos  de  Niza,   the  discoverer  of  New 
Mexico,  was  a  Franciscan  friar.     Three  other  Franciscans 


EXPLORATION  AND   CONQUEST  33 

came  with  Coronado  in  1540  and  remained  in  New  Mexico 
when  the  General  and  his  great  expedition  left  in  1542. 

Friars  Juan  de  la  Cruz  (kroos)  and  Luis  de  Escalona 
(Iwes  da  gs-ka-lo'na),  aged  men,  whose  physical  strength 
and  vigor  were  gone,  cast  their  lot  with  the  Pueblos.  Juan 
de  la  Cruz  stayed  at  Tiguex,  where  he  was  killed  by  the 
Indians  before  the  close  of  the  year  (probably  November 
25,  1542).  Luis  de  Escalona  went  over  to  Cicuye  (Pecos). 
No  Spanish  legend  or  Indian  tradition  remains  to  tell  his 
fate.  The  third  of  the  missionaries  was  Juan  de  Padilla 
(pa-the'ya) ,  a  young  and  vigorous  fellow  who  had  accom- 
panied Coronado  on  all  his  wanderings.  He  had  gone  with 
Tovar  to  Tusayan  and  with  Alvarado  to  the  eastern  plains 
in  1540,  and  had  been  one  of  the  footmen  who  accompanied 
the  General  to  Quivira  in  the  summer  of  1541.  Now  he 
chose  to  go  back  to  the  Quiviras  (Wichitas)  of  eastern 
Kansas  in  the  spring  of  1542  for  mission  work.  He  was 
accompanied  by  Andres  del  Carnpo  (an-dras'  del  cam'po), 
a  Portuguese  soldier,  and  a  few  friendly  Indians  who  had 
been  brought  along  from  New  Spain.  At  first  the  Quiviras 
"  loved  him  as  a  father/'  but  in  1544  (probably  November 
30)  they  fell  upon  him  and  murdered  him. 

Del  Campo  and  his  companions  fled.  Eight  or  nine 
years  later,  after  wandering  across  Oklahoma,  Texas,  and 
northeastern  Mexico,  they  walked  into  Tampico  (tam- 
pe'ko)  on  the  Gulf  coast,  to  tell  another  marvelous  story 
of  early  American  travel. 

II.     THE   SECOND   ERA  OF  EXPLORATION,    1581-1595 

35.  The  Shifting  Frontier  of  New  Spain.  —  Forty  years 
went  by  before  the  Pueblos  saw  another  party  of  Europeans 
in  their  midst.  The  apparent  failure  of  the  Coronado 


34  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

expedition  caused  the  government  to  abandon  temporarily 
all  effort  to  settle  the  new  country.  Yet  northern  expansion 
was  the  natural  outlet  for  the  restless  energy  of  the  Span- 
iards in  Mexico,  and  they  did  not  wait  for  governmental 
encouragement.  Gold  seekers,  explorers,  and  missionaries 
pushing  out  into  the  northern  wilderness  were  quickly  fol- 
lowed by  cattlemen  and  colonists.  Soon  the  northern 
frontier  of  settlement  had  crossed  the  central  table  lands 
and  reached  the  upper  waters  of  the  Conchos  (kon'chos) 
River  at  the  Santa  Barbara  (san'ta  bar'ba-ra)  mines  in 
southern  Chihuahua,  pointing  the  way  for  a  more  direct 
route  to  the  land  of  the  Pueblos. 

36.  The  Name   "New  Mexico."    -In   1567   Francisco 
Ibarra  Ce-bar'ra),  governor  of  New  Biscay,  led  an  expedition 
from   the  western  coast   across    the  mountains   to  Casas 
Grandes   in   northern   Chihuahua   near   the   southwestern 
border  of  modern  New  Mexico.     So  well  did  he  like  the 
country  that  he  described  it  as  "  a  new  Mexico,"  that  is, 
another  country  like  the  Valley  of  Mexico.     A  year  later 
(1568)  Francisco  del  Cano  (ka'no)  discovered  the  "  Lake 
of  New  Mexico,"  probably  Lake  Parras  (par'ras),  in  the 
country  far  to  the  north  of  Zacatecas  (sa-ka-ta/kas).     The 
name  stuck,  and  soon  came  into  common  use  as  the  desig- 
nation for  this  northern  region. 

37.  The     Rodriguez     Expedition,     1581-1582.  -  -  Friar 
Agustin   Rodriguez    (a-goos-ten'  ro-dre'gas),  a  Franciscan 
missionary  working  among  the  rough  frontiersmen  of  Santa 
Barbara  and  San  Bartolome  (bar-to-lo-ma/),  had  become 
interested  in  the  stories  of  the  Pueblos  and  desired  to  con- 
vert them  to  Christianity.     With  two  other  Franciscans, 
Juan  de  Santa  Maria  (san'ta  ma-re'a)  and  Francisco  Lopez, 
and  an  escort  of  nine  soldiers  and  traders  under  Francisco 


EXPLORATION  AND   CONQUEST  35 


Sanchez  Chamuscado  (san'chas  cha-moos-ca'tho),  he  set 
out  from  Santa  Barbara  June  6,  1581,  accompanied  by 
about  sixteen  Indian  guides  and  servants.  Following 
down  the  Conchos  River  to  the  Rio  Grande  and  up  that 
stream  to  the  Pueblo  country,  they  opened  up  a  new  and 
more  direct  route  to  New  Mexico. 

The  pueblo  of  Puaray  (the  Tiguex  of  Coronado)  near 
modern  Bernalillo  became  their  center  of  operations.  Juan 
de  Santa  Maria,  against  the  advice  of  both  friars  and  sol- 
diers, determined  to  return  to  Mexico.  Hoping  to  find  a 
still  more  direct  route  to  the  lower  Rio  Grande,  he  crossed 
the  Sandia  (san-de'a)  Mountains  and  set  out  toward  El 
Paso.  Three  days  later  he  was  killed  by  the  Indians. 

38.  Exploring  the  Country.  —  Both  soldiers  and  priests 
were  eager  to  learn  about  the  country.     They  soon  set  off 
up  the  Jemez   (ha/mas)   River,   turned  eastward   to  visit 
the  buffalo   country,   came  back   through   the   salt  lakes 
region  in  Torrance  County,  went  west  to  Zuni  and  far-off 
Moqui,  and  then  returned  to  Puaray.     They  saw  sixty-one 
pueblos  containing  a  population  which  was  estimated  at 
"  more  than  one  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  souls  "  and 
had  heard  of  as  many  more — an  enthusiastic  exaggeration, 
of  course. 

39.  Return  of  the  Soldiers  —  Death  of  the  Friars. - 
In  January,   1582,  Chamuscado  and  the  soldiers  started 
back  down  the  Rio  Grande  to  join  their  kinsmen  around 
the  Santa  Barbara  mines.     Fathers  Rodriguez  and  Lopez, 
with  a  few  Indian  servants,  remained  at  Puaray  to  Chris- 
tianize  the   Pueblos.     The   natives   of   Puaray,   however, 
had  not  forgotten  their  harsh  treatment  at  the  hands  of 
Coronado's   captains   forty  years  before ;  and  in  a  short 
time  they  put  an  arrow  through  the  heart  of  Lopez  and 


36  THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

allowed  Rodriguez  to  bury  him.     A  few  days  later  they 
killed  Rodriguez  and  threw  his  body  into  the  Rio  Grande. 
The  second  effort  to  Christianize  the  Indians  of  New 
Mexico,  like  the  first,  had  won  martyrs'  crowns. 

40.  The  Espejo  Expedition,  1582-1583.  —  These  dis- 
asters did  not  chill  the  patriotic  and  missionary  zeal  of  the 
Spanish  pioneers.  No  sooner  had  the  soldiers  returned 
to  Santa  Barbara  and  reported  the  death  of  Santa  Maria 

and  the  leaving  of  Ro- 
driguez and  Lopez  at 
Puaray  than  the  Fran- 
ciscans bestirred  them- 
selves to  send  out  a  rescue 
party.  Father  Bernal- 
dino  Beltran  (ber-nal- 
de'no  bel-tran'),  of  Dur- 
ango,  volunteered  as 
leader,  and  was  imme- 
diately joined  by  Antonio 
de  Espejo  (es-pa'ho),  a 

PREHISTORIC  PICTOGRAPHS  nfive  of  C6rdova  fkor'- 

do-va)  in  Spain,  now  a 

wealthy  gentleman  of  Mexico  engaged  in  working  the 
Santa  Barbara  mines.  Espejo  offered  not  only  to  furnish 
military  protection  for  Father  Beltran,  but  to  pay  the  whole 
expense  of  the  expedition.  In  July  the  Indian  servants 
who  had  been  left  in  New  Mexico  suddenly  appeared 
in  Santa  Barbara  and  told  of  the  death  of  another  of  the 
friars.  Espejo  and  Beltran,  however,  experienced  many 
delays.  Not  until  November  10, 1 582,  did  they  set  out  down 
the  Conchos  from  San  Bartolome.  Espejo  had  a  command 
of  fourteen  soldiers.  Father  Beltran  was  accompanied  by  a 


EXPLORATION   AND   CONQUEST  37 

few  friends.  With  them  came  Indian  guides  and  servants. 
Their  pack  train  of  a  hundred  and  fifteen  horses  and  mules 
was  loaded  with  baggage,  provisions,  munitions,  merchan- 
dise, and  trinkets  —  for  trade  with  the  Indians  was  not  lost 
sight  of. 

In  the  country  below  El  Paso  the  Jumano  (hoo-ma'no) 
Indians  told  them  of  "  three  Christians  and  a  negro  " 
(Cabeza  de  Vaca  and  his  companions)  passing  through 
their  country  many  years  before. 

Just  before  reaching  Puaray,  Espejo  and  Beltran  learned 
from  the  Tigua  Indians  that  all  three  of  the  Friars  were 
dead.  When  the  expedition  camped  at  the  pueblo,  Febru- 
ary 17,  1583,  the  guilty  natives  fled  to  the  hills. 

41.  Exploration  and  Prospecting.  —  The  object  of  getting 
information    about    the    friars    was    now    attained.     The 
hope  of  rescuing  any  of  them  was  at  an  end.     But  Espejo 
had  still  other  interests  at  heart.     A  wealthy  mine  operator 
and  man  of  affairs,  he  naturally  turned  his  attention  to 
exploring  the  region  and  examining  its  mineral  prospects. 
He  visited  Sia  (se'a)  and  Jemez,  went  west  to  Acoma  and 
Zuni. 

At  Zuni  he  heard  of  a  Lake  of  Gold  (Laguna  del  Oro) 
sixty  days'  journey  to  the  westward,  where  the  people 
"  wore  bracelets  and  earrings  of  gold."  He  did  not  find 
the  fabled  Lake  of  Gold,  but  the  search  for  it  led  him  first 
to  Moqui  and  then  far  away  to  the  upper  waters  of  the 
Bill  Williams  Fork  in  western  Arizona.  "  I  found  them," 
he  says  of  the  mines,  "  and  with  my  own  hands  I  extracted 
ore  from  them,  said  by  those  who  know  to  be  very  rich  and 
to  contain  much  silver." 

42.  Return  to  New  Spain.  —  Returning  to  Zuni,  Espejo 
found  Father  Beltran,  who  was  not  in  sympathy  with  his 


38  THE   HISTORY   OF  N1AY    MK.XTCO 

schemes  of  exploration,  ready  to  quit  the  country  at  once. 
Beltran  and  nine  companions  returned  by  Acoma  to  the 
Rio  Grande  and  went  south  toward  San  Bartolome.  Espejo 
and  eight  soldiers  who  remained  with  him  marched  back 
to  Puaray,  visited  the  pueblos  up  the  river  to  the  region 
north  of  Santa  Fe,  then  turned  across  the  mountains  to 
Cicuye  (Pecos),  and  went  down  the  Pecos  River,  naming 
it  "  Rio  de  las  Vacas  "  (re'6  da  las  va'kas)  from  the  buffalo 
grazing  on  its  banks.  From  about  the  present  southern 
boundary  of  the  State  he  crossed  to  the  mouth  of  the  Con- 
chos  and  went  up  that  stream  to  the  settlements,  Sep- 
tember 20,  1583. 

He  had  blazed  the  trail  for  a  third  line  of  approach  from 
the  northern  settlements  of  New  Spain  to  the  Pueblo 
region  of  central  and  northern  New  Mexico. 

43.  The   First    White   Woman   in   New   Mexico.  —  In 
the  Espejo  expedition  was  a  soldier,  Miguel  Sanchez  Va- 
lenciano    (me-gal'    san'chas    va-len-sya'no),    whose    wife, 
Casilda    (ka-sel'da),   and   three   small   sons,   accompanied 
him  on  all  the  long  tramp  over  central  and  western  New 
Mexico.     She  was  probably  the  first  white  woman  within 
the  borders  of  the  State. 

44.  Espejo's  Achievements.  —  Espejo,  a  private  citizen, 
with  no  governmental  aid,  and  with  only  fourteen  Spanish 
soldiers,  one  friar,  a  few  frontiersmen  and  friendly  Indians, 
explored  New  Mexico  almost  as  extensively  as  the  great 
expedition  of  Coronado  had  done.     He  spent  ten  months 
in  the  country,  had  no  serious  trouble  with  the  Indians, 
and  did  not  lose  a  man. 

As  a  practical  miner  and  man  of  affairs  not  looking  for 
nuggets  of  gold  lying  around  on  top  of  the  ground,  but 
depending  upon  the  evidences  of  minerals  in  the  moun- 


EXPLORATION  AND   CONQUEST  39 

tains  ready  to  yield  themselves  to  the  miner's  pick,  he  re- 
ported it  a  country  of  great  mineral  wealth.  He  also  recom- 
mended it  as  a  good  grazing  country  with  "  lands  suitable 
for  fields  and  gardens,  with  or  without  irrigation. "  He  esti- 
mated the  Indian  population  at  253,000  —  about  ten  times 
too  large. 

So  enthusiastic  was  he  about  the  region  that  he  named  it 
"  Nueva  Andalucia  "  (an-da-loo-se'a)  for  his  native  land  in 
Spain.  His  report  had  more  influence  in  bringing  about  the 
settlement  of  New  Mexico  than  all  previous  ones  combined. 

46.  Colonizing  Schemes.  —  Espejo  applied  directly  to 
the  Spanish  king,  April  23,  1584,  for  authority  to  colonize 
the  region  as  a  new  kingdom  or  viceroyalty  to  the  north  of 
Mexico.  He  offered  to  bring  out  a  colony  of  four  hundred 
men,  including  a  hundred  with  families,  and  twenty-four 
Franciscan  missionaries.  He  proposed  to  bring  his  colonists 
in  two  divisions :  one  up  the  Rio  Grande,  the  other  up  the 
Pecos.  Because  of  his  "  desire  to  increase  the  realms  of 
your  Majesty  and  the  Catholic  faith  "  he  wished  to  finish 
his  life  "  in  the  continuation  of  these  discoveries  and  settle- 
ments." "  I  shall  not  be  satisfied  until  I  reach  the  coasts 
of  the  North  and  South  seas." 

Unfortunately  for  New  Mexico  his  wish  was  not  granted. 
Other  ambitious  men  in  New  Spain  were  seeking  similar 
honors.  Cristobal  Martin  (kres-to'bal  mar-ten')  had  already 
(October,  1583)  applied  to  the  viceroy  for  colonizing  author- 
ity. Others  followed.  Among  them  was  Juan  Bautista 
de  Lomas  (bow-tes'ta  da  lo'mas),  early  in  1589,  whose 
extravagant  demands  included  making  the  members  of  his 
family  titled  nobles,  giving  them  supreme  power  in  the  new 
kingdom  for  six  generations,  providing  them  with  forty 
thousand  servants,  and  many  other  things  needless  to 


40  THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

mention.     The  proposals  of  all  these  gentlemen  were  re- 
jected. 

46.  Castafio  de  Sosa,  1590-1591.  —  While  the  govern- 
ment was  dallying  with  propositions  for  settlements,  Caspar 
Castafio  de  Sosa  (gas-par'  kas-ta'nyo  da  so'sa),  captain 
general  of  New  Leon  da-6n'),  made  a  bold  dash  for  the  honor 


BASKET  DAXCE,  SAN  ILDEFONSO 

of  colonizing  New  Mexico.  Relying  on  the  provision  of 
the  Laws  of  Settlement  of  1573,  which  permitted  officers  to 
make  settlements  in  regions  already  discovered,  provided 
they  gave  prompt  notice  of  their  action,  he  sent  word  to 
the  viceroy  and  immediately  started  for  the  north,  July 
27,  1590.  From  his  mining  camp  at  New  Almaden  (al- 
ma-than'),  now  Monclova  (mon-klo'va) ,  he  made  his  way 
to  the  Rio  Grande  and  up  the  Pecos,  which  he  called  the 
Rio  Salado  (sa-la'tho),  or  Salt  River,  to  Cicuye.  With 


EXPLORATION  AND   CONQUEST  41 

him  were  a  hundred  and  seventy  persons,  including  women 
and  children.  He  also  had  a  wagon  train  of  supplies  and 
implements. 

From  Cicuye  he  went  over  to  San  Ildefonso  (el-da-fon'so), 
Santa  Clara,  San  Juan,  and  Taos,  then  back  down  the  river 
by  Santo  Domingo  (san'to  do-men'go)  and  Tiguex  to  Isleta 
(es-la'ta),  below  Albuquerque  (al-boo-ker'ka) .  In  the 
meantime  a  company  of  fifty  soldiers  had  come  up  the  Rio 
Grande  to  arrest  him.  It  was  commanded  by  Captain 
Juan  Morlete  (mor-la'ta),  the  jealous  ruler  of  the  neighbor- 
ing frontier  province  of  New  Biscay,  who  had  persuaded  the 
viceroy  that  Sosa  was  trying  to  stir  up  rebellion.  Down 
the  Rio  Grande  and  to  Mexico  City  Sosa  was  taken  as  a 
prisoner  to  stand  trial.  His  hope  was  blasted. 

47.  Humana  and  Bonilla.  —  Another  unauthorized  at- 
tempt was  made  by  Captains  Humana  (oo-ma'nya)  and 
Bonilla  (bo-ne'ya),  about  1593  or  1594.  They  came  up 
from  New  Biscay  with  a  small  party,  spent  most  of  a  year 
among  the  Pueblos,  went  out  on  the  northeastern  plains, 
visited  a  large  Indian  village  on  the  Arkansas,  and  pushed 
on  probably  to  the  Platte  River.  Then  they  quarreled, 
Humana  murdered  Bonilla,  and  the  Indians  in  turn  wiped 
out  the  party.  We  know  the  story  only  from  the  account 
of  a  New  Mexican  Indian  named  Joseph,  who  escaped  and 
got  back  to  New  Mexico  after  a  year's  captivity  among 
the  Apaches. 

GENERAL   READINGS       . 

H.  H.  BANCROFT,  History  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  35-109. 
E.  G.  BOURNE,  Spain  in  America  ("American  Nation"  Series,  III),  170- 
174- 

W.  W.  H.  DAVIS,  The  Spanish  Conquest  of  New  Mexico,  141-261. 
C.   F.  LUMMIS,   The  Spanish  Pioneers,  80-88. 
L.  B.  PRINCE,  A  Concise  History  of  New  Mexico,  66-91. 


42  THE  HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

B.  M.  READ,  Illustrated  History  of  New  Mexico,  119-191. 

R.  E.  TWITCHELL,  The  Leading  Facts  of  New  Mexican  History,  I,  162-299. 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

1.  THE  CORONADO  EXPEDITION.    G.  P.  Winship,  "The  Coronado  Ex- 
pedition, 1540-1542,"  in  Fourteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology, 
Part  I,  362-613;  F.  W.  Hodge  (ed.),  "The  Narrative  of  the  Expedition  of 
Coronado,  by  Pedro  de  Castaneda,"  in  Spanish  Explorers  in  the  Southern 
United  States  ("Original  Narratives"  Series),  273-387. 

2.  THE  RODRIGUEZ  EXPEDITION.     H.  E.  Bolton,  Spanish  Exploration 
in  the  Southwest,  1542-1706  ("Original  Narratives"  Series),  135-160. 

3.  THE  ESPEJO  EXPEDITION.    H.  E.  Bolton,  Same  as  above,  161-195. 

4.  THE  SOSA  EXPEDITION.     Dorothy  Hull,  "  Castano  de  Sosa's  Expedi- 
tion to  New  Mexico  in  1590,"  in  Old  Santa  Fe,  III  (Oct.,  1916),  307-332. 


.QUESTIONS   AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Give  an  account  of  the  fitting  out  and  equipment  of  the  Coronado 
expedition.     Who  was  the  guide?     What  route  did  it  follow? 

2.  What  did  the  Spaniards  find  at  Zuni?     What  name  did  they  give  to 
the  place?     How  did  the  Zunis  regard  them?     Why? 

3.  Who  discovered  the  Moqui  province?     The  Grand  Canyon?     What 
do  you  know  about  the  Grand  Canyon? 

4.  Why  did  Alvarado  go  east  to  the  Rio  Grande  and  out  on  the  plains? 
Who  was  Bigotes?     The  Turk?     W'ould  you  have  believed  their  stories? 

5.  Where  did  Coronado's  army  spend  the  first  winter?     Were  they  jus- 
tified in  taking  the  Indians'  houses  and  goods?     In  their  punishment  of 
the  Indians  for  the  revolt?     Why? 

6.  What  caused  Coronado  to  go  to  the  eastern  plains  in  1541?     Why 
did  the  main  army  soon  return  to  Tiguex?      How  did  they  spend  the 
summer  ? 

7.  Where  was  Quivira?     What  did  Coronado  find  there? 

8.  How  did  his  men  spend  the  winter  of  1541-1542?     Why  did  they  re- 
turn to  New  Spain? 

9.  Trace  the  route  of  Coronado's  journey  on  your  map,  naming  the  im- 
portant places  visited.     Did  he  fail?     Was  his  treatment  by  the  viceroy 
just?     Why? 

10.  Who  were  the  first  missionaries  to  the  Pueblos?     Where  were  their 
headquarters?     What  became  of  them?     Who  was  Juan  de  Padilla? 

n.   What  changes  took  place  in  the  frontier  of  New  Spain  between  1542 
and  1581?     How  did  the  name  "New  Mexico"  originate?     When? 

12.  What  were  the  objects  of  the  Rodriguez  expedition?     Why  was  the 
new  route  better  than  the  old  one?     What  country  was  explored? 

13.  Tell  about  the  work  of  Rodriguez,  L6pez,  and  Santa  Maria. 


EXPLORATION  AND   CONQUEST  43 

14.  What  were  the  chief  objects  of  the  Espejo  expedition?     Who  were 
the  leading  spirits  in  it?     Draw  a  map  of  the  regions  explored.     What 
name  did  they  give  to  the  country  ?     Why  ? 

15.  Trace  on  your  map  the  new  route  opened  by  Espejo  as  he  returned 
to  New  Spain. 

16.  What  report  did  Espejo  make  of  the  country?    What  did  he  propose 
to  do? 

17.  Tell  about  the  expedition  of  Castano  de  Sosa.     Why  did  he  fail? 
Trace  his  route  on  your  map. 

18.  Who  were  Humana  and  Bonilla?     What  became  of  their  expedition  ? 


CHAPTER  IV 

PERMANENT   SETTLEMENT,    1698-1609 

48.  The  Call  of  the  North.  —  The  expeditions  of  Friar 
Marcos,  Coronado,  Rodriguez,  Espejo,  Sosa,  and  others 
had  aroused  so  much  interest  in  this  northern  country 
that  it  could  not  remain  long  unoccupied.     The  hope  of 
planting  a  permanent  settlement  died  in  Sosa  only  to  be 
born  anew  in  others  of  his  countrymen.     Their  patriotism, 
missionary  zeal,  and  love  of  pioneering  all  spurred  them  on. 

49.  Juan  de  Onate.  —  Espejo's  report  on  the  mineral 
prospects  and  other  resources  of  the  region  had  attracted 
the  attention  of  Juan  de  Onate,  a  wealthy  miner  of  Zacatecas. 
His  father,  the  famous  Cristobal  de  Onate,  a  pioneer  in  the 
new,  rich  mining  region  of  Zacatecas,  was  one  of  the  most 
extensive  mine  operators  in  New  Spain.     Born  in  northern 
Mexico,   probably  in   Zacatecas,   in   the   first    generation 
after  the  conquest,  Onate  inherited  the  spirit  and  tradi- 
tions of  the  frontier  in  an  age  when  pioneering  and  conquest 
had  become  the  ruling  passion  of  his  race.     His  wife  was 
a  granddaughter  of  Cortes  and  a  great-granddaughter  of 
Montezuma  II,  the  last  Aztec  emperor. 

50.  His   Plans   for   Colonization.  —  Backed   by   wealth 
and  influence,  Onate  applied  to  Viceroy  Luis  de  Velasco 
fva-las'ko)  for  authority  to  colonize  New  Mexico.     Finding 
the  government  empty-handed  and  unwilling  to  incur  the 
expense  of  new  northern  ventures,  he  offered  to  fit  out  the 
expedition  and  employ  two  hundred  soldiers  at  his  own 

44 


PERMANENT   SETTLEMENT  45 

expense.  The  friendly  Viceroy  Velasco  accepted  his  prop- 
osition, September  15,  1595,  and  gave  him  a  government 
subsidy  with  the  usual  grant  of  privileges  and  exemptions 
of  first  settlers  to  the  colonists  who  should  go  with  him. 

A  few  weeks  later  a  new  and  unfriendly  viceroy  came  into 
office,  and  the  opposition  of  Onate's  jealous  rivals  nearly 
wrecked  the  whole  enterprise;  but  on  February  28,  1596, 
the  new  viceroy  approved  the  contract.  A  few  weeks 
later  Onate  and  his  followers  left  Mexico  City  for  the  north. 
One  official  inspection  or  investigation  after  another  so 
delayed  their  progress  that  it  was  December,  1597,  when 
they  reached  the  Santa  Barbara  mines  on  the  Conchos 
River. 

51.  The  Journey  to  New  Mexico.  —  February  7, 1598, 
nearly  two  years  after  leaving  Mexico  City,  the  army  of 
soldiers  and  settlers,  numbering  about  four  hundred,  left 
Santa  Barbara.  There  were  a  hundred  and  thirty  soldiers, 
some  of  whom  had  their  wives  and  children.  Ten  Fran- 
ciscan missionaries  under  Father  Alonso  Martinez  (mar- 
te'nas)  soon  joined  them.  The  baggage  and  supply  train 
of  eighty-three  wagons  and  carts,  with  seven  thousand  head 
of  stock  driven  on  foot,  brought  up  the  rear  of  the  long? 
slow-moving  procession  that  turned  away  into  the  northern 
wilderness. 

Leaving  the  Conchos  River  route  on  the  right,  Onate 
took  a  still  more  direct  route  straight  north  to  the  Rio 
Grande,  just  below  modern  El  Paso.  When  he  crossed 
to  the  east  bank,  May  4,  he  named  the  ford  "  El  Paso  del 
Norte." 

Onate  then  took  a  small  escort  and  went  ahead  to  ex- 
amine the  country.  The  main  body  of  the  colonists  fol- 
lowed more  slowly,  A  hint  at  their  hardships  as  they 


46  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

crossed  the  terrible  Jornada  del  Muerto  (hor-na'tha  del 
mwgr'to),  Journey  of  Death,  from  modern  Fort  Selden 
to  Cutter  may  be  gotten  from  the  name  "  Socorro  "  (succor, 
aid)  which  the  famished  Spaniards  applied  to  one  of  the 
villages  up  the  river  because  the  natives  there  supplied 
them  with  corn. 

52.  First  Settlement  at  San  Juan.  —  After  stopping  at 
Santo  Domingo  and  holding  a  parley  with  seven  Indian 
chiefs  representing  thirty-four  pueblos,  Onate  sent  his 


nephew,  Captain  Vicente  de  Zaldivar  (ve-sen'-ta  da  sal-de'- 
var),  back  down  the  Rio  Grande  to  bring  up  the  colonists 
while  he  himself  moved  on  up  the  river  to  the  pueblo  of 
Caypa  (ki'pa),  which  the  Spaniards  renamed  "San  Juan  de 
los  Caballeros  "  (ka-ba-ya'ros),  Saint  John  of  the  Cavaliers, 
in  memory  of  the  "  knightly  band  of  original  settlers." 

When  Onate  took  up  headquarters  by  the  pueblo  of  San 
Juan,  July  u,  1598,  he  was  beginning  the  permanent  settle- 
ment of  New  Mexico.  Five  weeks  later  (August  18)  the 
main  body  of  colonists  arrived  and  pitched  camp  near  San 


PERMANENT   SETTLEMENT  47 

Juan,  the  first  capital  of  New  Mexico.  Here  in  a  fertile 
spot  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande,  thirty  miles  north 
of  Santa  Fe,  they  were  planting  the  second  permanent  colony 
in  the  present  United  States  —  nine  years  before  Captain 
John  Smith  landed  at  Jamestown  and  more  than  two 
decades  before  the  Pilgrims  came  to  Plymouth. 

While  waiting  for  the  arrival  of  his  colonists,  Governor 
Onate  visited  the  near-by  pueblos  of  Taos,  San  Ildefonso, 
San  Marcos,  San  Cristobal,  Pecos,  Galisteo  (ga-les-ta'6) , 
Santo  Domingo,  Sia,  and  Jemez  and  received  their  promises 
of  friendship.  Returning  to  San  Juan,  he  and  his  men,  as- 
sisted by  fifteen  hundred  Indians,  began  the  construction 
of  an  irrigation  ditch  for  "  the  city  of  San  Francisco  " 
a  name  which  the  friars  had  applied  to  their  proposed  new 
settlement. 

53.    Founding   the    First    Missions.  —  Five    days    after 

the  settlers  arrived  they  began  the  building  of  a  church. 

It  was  completed  in  two  weeks  and  dedicated  September  8 

-  the  first  Christian  temple  in  the  western  portion  of  the 

United  States. 

The  next  day  (September  9)  Onate  held  a  grand  council 
at  San  Juan.  The  Pueblo  chiefs  from  all  the  region  came 
and  made  their  submission  and  agreed  to  receive  Christian 
missionaries.  The  province  was  divided  into  seven  mission 
districts,  including  the  whole  Pueblo  region  from  Taos  to 
San  Marcial  and  even  Zufii  and  far-off  Moqui  as  well  as 
the  country  of  the  bloodthirsty  Apaches  and  Navajos. 

Then  eight  Franciscan  missionaries  went  out  to  take 
charge  of  these  dangerous  posts  separated  from  each  other 
by  miles  of  trackless  forest  or  burning  desert,  with  no  pro- 
tection nor  even  the  comforting  sight  of  a  familiar  face. 
There  was  always  danger  from  Indian  violence;  and  the 


48  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

improvidence  of  the  Indians  made  starvation  a  constant 
menace  to  the  missionary  who  was  dependent  upon  them. 

54.  The  First  Winter  at  San  Juan.  —  The  first  winter 
at  San  Juan,  like  the  first  winter  at  Jamestown  and  Plym- 
outh,   was   a   hard  one.     The  colonists  arrived  late  in  a 
season  of  great  drouth  when  the  crops  of  the  Indians  had 
been  almost  a  complete  failure.     Even  the  friendly  San 
Juan  Indians  did  not  have  a  food  supply  large  enough  for 
themselves   and   the   newcomers.     A   few   of   the   settlers 
became  discouraged  and  returned  to  New  Spain. 

Other  troubles  were  due  to  mischief  makers.  Mutiny 
broke  out  among  the  soldiers  in  the  very  first  month  of  the 
colony.  Dissatisfied  because  they  did  not  find  "  whole 
plates  of  silver  lying  on  the  ground  "  and  because  Onate 
would  not  let  them  maltreat  the  Indians,  they  formed  a 
gang  to  flee  to  New  Spain.  Four  of  them  did  steal  some 
horses  and  flee  to  Santa  Barbara. 

On  the  whole,  however,  the  settlers  stood  firm.  Of  the 
same  sturdy  stock  that  had  conquered  New  Spain,  they 
had  the  courage  to  face  the  hardships  of  planting  a  new 
colony  in  the  unbroken  wilderness  of  New  Mexico. 

55.  Exploration  in  the  Fall  of  1598.  —  The  geography 
of  the  continent  was  yet  largely  unknown.     New  Mexico 
was  supposed  to  be  near  the  northern  strait  connecting  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific.     The  colony  was  regarded  as  an  im- 
portant base  for  northern  exploration.     With  the  colony 
established   and   the   missions   located,   Onate,    therefore, 
turned  his  attention  to  the  lands  beyond. 

In  September  (1598)  he  sent  Captain  Vicente  de  Zaldivar 
with  sixty  men  to  the  eastward  by  way  of  Apache  Canyon, 
Pecos,  and  the  Canadian  River  to  about  the  present  east- 
ern boundary  of  the  State.  Without  waiting  for  the  re- 


PERMANENT   SETTLEMENT  49 

turn  of  this  party  the  Governor  himself  went  south  by 
Canada  (ka-nya'tha)  and  San  Marcos  to  the  salt  lakes  in 
Torrance  County,  then  turned  west  across  the  Manzano 
Mountains  by  Abo  and  Puaray  to  Acoma,  Zuni,  and  Moqui. 
From  Moqui  he  sent  Captain  Marcos  Farfan  (far-fan') 
into  western  Arizona  to  search  for  the  mines  reported  by 
Espejo  (sec.  41).  Farfan's  report  runs:  "They  are  so 
long  and  wide  that  half  of  the  people  of  New  Spain  can 
have  mines  there." 

66.  The  Revolt  of  Acoma.  —  As  Onate  started  back  from 
Zuni  in  December  to  spend  Christmas  with  his  colony  at 
San  Juan  he  learned  of  the  first  disastrous  encounter  of  his 
men  with  the  Pueblos. 

As  he  went  west  in  October  the  famous  old  sky  city  of 
Acoma  had  received  him  without  resistance  and  had  prom- 
ised allegiance  to  the  Spaniards.  Now  he  learned  that 
the  Acomas  had  risen  in  revolt  and  murdered  Captain 
Juan  de  Zaldivar  and  many  of  his  men,  who  had  started 
west  to  join  the  Governor's  expedition.  The  few  who 
escaped  bore  the  news  to  Onate,  who  was  returning  from 
Arizona,  and  to  the  wives  and  friends  of  the  murdered 
men  at  San  Juan. 

57.  The  Punishment  of  Acoma.  —  What  would  the 
Spaniards  do  with  Acoma?  The  Indians  were  waiting  fDr 
the  answer  to  that  question  before  making  their  next  move. 
The  bloody  Acomas  must  be  punished  or  New  Mexico 
must  be  abandoned.  Christmas  festivities  were  forgotten. 
A  solemn  council  of  war  reached  a  quick  decision.  Vicente 
de  Zaldivar,  brother  of  the  murdered  Captain,  took  seventy 
picked  men  and  set  out  to  punish  Acoma,  one  of  America's 
strongest  natural  fortresses.  They  began  the  attack  on 
the  morning  of  January  22,  1599.  The  fight  lasted  two 


50  THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

whole  days  and  part  of  the  third.  At  first  the  advantage 
was  with  the  Acomas.  But  when  the  Spaniards  gained  the 
top  of  the  cliff,  three  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  the  sur- 
rounding plain,  the  tide  turned.  By  the  close  of  the  second 
day  the  pueblo  was  on  fire  and  many  of  the  braves  were 
dead.  On  the  morning  of  the  third  day  the  last  of  the  in- 
habitants surrendered  and  were  sent  away  to  settle  on  the 
plains  below.  The  City  of  the  Sky  was  destroyed. 

Acoma,  the  impregnable  fortress,  had  fallen.  Hence- 
forth Onate  met  no  organized  resistance  from  the  Indians 
of  New  Mexico.  They  had  had  their  lesson. 

58.  The  Founding  of  San  Gabriel.  —  The  colony  had 
passed  its  first  winter  and  weathered  its  first  storm.     In 
the  spring  the  Governor  made  a  long  report  to  the  viceroy, 
praising  the  country  as  a  place  for  permanent  settlement 
and  asking  for  large  Teenf ©^cements. 

Soon  th^wcolony  movtfs^rorn  San  Juan  across  to  the  west 
side  of  the  Rjo  Grande  and  founded  San  Gabriel  (san  ga- 
bryal'),  the  second  capital.  The  exact  date  is-  not  known. 
When  Ofiate  made  his  report  to  the  viceroy,  March  2,  1599, 
he  was  still  at  San  Juan ;  two  years  later  a  colonist  named 
Luis  de  Velasco  wrote  a  complaint  against  Onate's  rule, 
dated  "  San  Gabriel,  March  22,  1601."  The  change  was, 
therefore,  made  between  those  dates. 

59.  Onate's  Quivira  Expedition,  1601.  —  In  June,  1601, 
Onate  found  the  opportunity  for  carrying  out  a  plan  he  had 
long  cherished  of  going  to  Quivira.     With  seventy  or  eighty 
soldiers  and  numerous  servants  he  took  the  old  trail  of 
Captain  Zaldivar   (sec.   55)  by  Pecos  and  the  Canadian 
Valley  to  the  Arkansas  and  across  into  eastern   Kansas, 
where   Coronado   had   gone   sixty  years   before.     Joseph, 
the  survivor  of  the  Humana  expedition  (sec.  47),  went  with 


PERMANENT   SETTLEMENT  51 

him  as  guide  and  interpreter.  The  journey  accomplished 
nothing  beyond  getting  more  information  about  the  plains 
country  and  its  inhabitants. 

60.  Abandonment  of  the  Colony.  —  The  absence  of  the 
Governor,    however,    gave    free  opportunity  for  the  mal- 
contents at  San  Gabriel  to  stir  up  trouble.     When  he  re- 
turned, November  24,  he  found  his  colony  almost  aban- 
doned.    Many  of  the  colonists  and  all  of  the  missionaries 
except  Alonso  Martinez,  the  commissary,  had  gone  to  the 
Santa  Barbara  mines  and  elsewhere.     Captain  Vicente  de 
Zaldivar   followed    them,    secured    new   missionaries   and 
settlers,  and  brought  back  some  of  the  deserters.     Renewed 
energy  brought  prosperity  and  contentment  in  the  colony 
and  left  the  Governor  free  to  entertain  new  plans  of  ex- 
pansion. 

61.  Oiiate  Goes  to  the  South  Sea.  —  In  the  fall  of  1604 
Onate  gathered  about  him  thirty  horsemen  and  two  priests 
and  set  out  (October  7)  on  an  expedition  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean.     Following  the  old  trail  of  Coronado,  Espejo,  and 
Farfan,  he  crossed  Arizona  to  the  Colorado  River,  called 
by  the  Spaniards  the  River  of  Good  Hope,  also  the  Rio 
Tizon  (te-son'),  Firebrand  River,  because  "  Always  when 
these  Indians  travel  they  carry  a  lighted  firebrand  in  the 
hand." 

Following  down  the  Colorado,  Onate  reached  the  Gulf 
of  California  January  25,  1605,  and  took  possession  in  the 
name  of  Spain.  Four  days  later  the  party  began  the  return 
journey,  on  which  they  saved  themselves  from  starvation 
only  by  killing  and  eating  their  horses.  April  25  they 
reached  San  Gabriel  "  all  sound  and  well  and  not  a  man 
missing." 

62.  The  Retirement  of  Ofiate,  1608.  —  This  was  Onate's 


52  THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

last  great  expedition  as  governor  and  captain  general  of 
New  Mexico.  His  arduous  campaigns  and  exacting  duties 
as  head  of  the  infant  colony  had  worn 'him  out.  The  huge 
sums  of  money  that  he  had  paid  out  of  his  own  private 
fortune  had  reduced  him  to  poverty.  Yet  the  colony  was 
in  great  need  of  reinforcements  that  never  came  from 
Mexico  City.  In  despair,  therefore,  he  asked  to  be  relieved 
of  his  office. 

As  he  passes  quietly  from  the  scene,  let  us  remember  his 
great  achievements.  He  had  laid  the  corner  stone  of  the 
State ;  had  guided  the  colony  through  the  first  ten  years 
of  its  infancy  ;  had  organized  the  first  mission  system  among 
the  New  Mexican  Indians ;  had  explored  New  Mexico  and 
the  Southwest  as  extensively  as  Coronado,  Esjepo,  and  all 
the  rest  of  his  predecessors  combined ;  and  had  blazed  the 
trail  to  the  Gulf  of  California. 

63.  The  Founding  of  Santa  Fe.1  —  Governor  Ofiate's 
letter  of  resignation  to  the  viceroy  was  written  from  his 
capital  at  San  Gabriel,  August  24,  1607.  February  27 
of  the  following  year  (1608)  the  viceroy  appointed  Juan 
Martinez  de  Montoya  (mon-to'ya),  of  San  Gabriel,  as 
temporary  governor.  The  Cabildo  (ka-bel'do),  or  council 
of  citizens,  at  San  Gabriel  refused  to  recognize  him  and 
elected  Onate  in  his  place.  But  the  colonizer  refused  to 
serve,  and  they  elected  his  son,  Cristobal  Ofiate.  A  year 
later  the  viceroy  appointed  Pedro  de  Peralta  (pa' thro  da 
pa-rarta)  as  governor  and  issued  to  him  (March  30,  1609) 
instructions  for  the  founding  of  a  new  capital  so  that  the 
colony  might  "  live  with  more  regularity  and  permanence." 

1  For  the  data  in  this  paragraph  I  am  indebted  to  my  friend,  Professor  Herbert  E.  Bolton, 
of  the  University  of  California,  who  has  allowed  me  to  use  his  unpublished  monograph  on 
The  Last  Years  of  Onate's  Rule  and  the  Founding  of  Santa  Fl,  based  on  new  manuscript  ma- 
terials which  he  discovered  in  the  archives  of  Mexico. 


PERMANENT  SETTLEMENT  53 

There  is  reasonable  probability,  therefore,  that  Santa  Fe 
was  founded  in  the  latter  part  of  the  year  1609,  and  entire 
certainty  that  it  was  not  founded  before  that  time.  The 
first  positive  proof  of  its  existence  yet  discovered  dates 
from  October  3,  1617. 

With  the  moving  of  the  government  to  Santa  Fe,  the 
third  capital,  in  a  region  less  exposed  to  the  depredations 
of  the  Navajos,  San  Gabriel  sank  into  insignificance  and  has 
been  almost  forgotten. 

GENERAL  READINGS 

H.  H.  BANCROFT,  History  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  110-158. 

W.  W.  H.  DAVIS,  The  Spanish  Conquest  of  New  Mexico,  262-270. 

L.  B.  PRINCE,  A  Concise  History  of  New  Mexico,  92-105. 

B.  M.  READ,  Illustrated  History  of  New  Mexico,  193-248. 

R.  E.  TWITCHELL,  The  Leading  Facts  of  New  Mexican  History,  I,  301-334. 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

1.  JUAN  DE  ONATE.     B.  Q.  Cornish,  "The  Ancestry  and  Family  of  Juan 
de  Onate,"  in  The  Pacific  Ocean  in  History,  452-466. 

2.  THE  FOUNDING  OF  THE  COLONY.     H.  E.  Bolton,  Spanish  Exploration 
in  the  Southwest,  1542-1706  ("Original  Narratives"  Series),  197-222. 

3.  ONATE'S  EXPLORATIONS.     H.  E.  Bolton,  Same  as  above,  223-280. 

QUESTIONS   AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  After  so  many  failures,  why  did  not  the  Spaniards  give  up  this  region? 
Would  you  have  done  so? 

2.  Why  did  Onate  succeed  where  so  many  others  had  failed  ?     Why  was 
he  willing  to  pay  so  much  of  the  expense? 

3.  Give  an  account  of  his  journey  to  New  Mexico.     Where  is  the  Jor- 
nada del  Muerto  ?     How  did  Socorro  get  its  name  ? 

4.  Locate  the  first  settlement?     How  did  Onate  and  his  men  spend  the 
first  fall? 

5.  Give  an  account  of  the  founding  of  the  missions,  the  hardships  of  the 
missionaries. 

6.  Why  is  the  first  winter  in  a  new  colony  usually  a  hard  time?     What 
troubles  were  there  at  San  Juan  ? 


54  THE   HISTORY    OF  NEW   MEXICO 

7.  Trace  out  on  your  map  the  regions  explored  by  Onate,  Zaldfvar,  and 
Farfan  in  the  fall  of  1598.  ,    . 

8.  Why  must  the  revolt  of  Acoma  be  quickly  punished?     What  effect 
did  it  have? 

9.  When  was  San  Gabriel  founded? 

10.  What  was  the  object  of  Onate's  Quivira  expedition?     What  did  it 
accomplish?     Trace  the  route  on  your  map. 

11.  What  were  the  colonists  doing  during  that  time? 

12.  Give  an  account  of  Onate's  journey  to  the  South  Sea.     Trace  his 
route. 

13.  Why  did  he  resign  as  governor?     When?     Was  he  as  great  a  man 
as  Captain  John  Smith?     Greater?     Why? 

14.  About  what  time  was  Santa  Fe  founded  ?    Where  was  the  first  capi- 
tal?    Second?    Third? 


CHAPTER  V 

EXPANSION   AND    OVERTHROW,    1609-1680 
I.     INTERNAL   DEVELOPMENT 

64.  New   Point    of   View.  —  To    understand    the    slow 
growth  of  the  colony  during  the  seventeenth  century  and 
the  apparent  neglect  of  its  interests  by  the  government 
at  Mexico  City,  we  must  keep  in  mind  certain  important 
facts,     (i)  The    Spanish    authorities    were    interested    in 
New  Mexico  as  a  northern  outpost  of  Spanish  power  far 
up  in  the  heart  of  the  continent  as  a  base  of  operations  for 
further    explorations.     (2)  The    miners    and    adventurers 
of  New  Spain  came  to  the  colony  in  search  of  quick  wealth 
and   honors.     (3)  The   Franciscans   looked   upon   it   as   a 
new  field  to  be  won  for  the  Catholic  faith.     Experience, 
however,  quickly  showed  that  as  a  source  of  easily  gotten 
gold,  such  as  the  conquerors  had  found  in  Mexico  and  Peru, 
New  Mexico  was  a  disappointment.     As  a  mining  enter- 
prise  it   was   a   failure.     The   colony   became,    therefore, 
primarily    a    venture   in   missionary   work    and    northern 
exploration,  neither  of  which  called  for  large  numbers  of 
people. 

65.  Growth  of  the  Missions.  —  With  one  brief  interrup- 
tion in  the  winter  of  1601  (sees.  59,  60),  the  work  of  the 
missions  went  steadily   forward   from   the   time   of   their 
foundation  by  Onate  in  the  very  first  days  of  the  colony 
(sec.   53).     They  received  from  the  government  a  small 
amount  of  support  in  the  way  of  supplies  for  the  missionary 

55 


THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 


and  his  Indian  wards.  These  supplies,  supposed  to  be 
sent  by  pack  train  from  the  older  portions  of  New  Spain 
every  three  years,  frequently  did  not  come  for  five  or  six 
years  at  a  time ;  and  the  missionaries  had  to  depend  largely 
on  themselves  and  the  improvident  Indians. 

66.   Father  Benavides,  First  Custodian.  —  In  1621  Father 
Alonso  Benavides   (ba-na-ve'tiias)  came  to  New  Mexico 
as  the  first  custodian,  or  general  supervisor,  of  the  missions. 
With  him  came  twenty-six  new  friars.     Under  his  leader- 
ship the  baptizing  of  the  Indians  went  rapidly  forward. 
When  he  left  the  province  in  1629,  he  reported  a  Chris- 
tianized native  popula- 
tion   of     60,000    souls 
living  in  ninety  pueblos 
grouped    into    twenty- 
five    missions   with    no 
less  than  fifty  churches. 
These    figures,    how- 
ever, like  those  of  all  the 
other  early  explorers  and 
settlers  (sees.  3 8, 44),  are 
greatly  exaggerated ;  for 
the  entire  Pueblo  popu- 
lation at  the  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury  was    only    about 
25,000  (sec.  5). 

BHKBBBBBBI  67.   The  First  Church 

OLD  SAN  MIGUEL  CHURCH,  SANTA  F6     in    Santa  Fg   _  jn   the 

Memorial  on  New  Mexico  which  Father  Benavides  presented 
to  the  Spanish  king  in  1630,  he  says  of  the  "  Villa  of  Santa  Fe, 
the  head  of  this  Kingdom  " :  "  There  lacked  only  the  prin- 


EXPANSION  AND   OVERTHROW  57 

cipal  [thing],  which  was  the  church.  The  one  they  had 
was  a  poor  hut,  for  the  religious  attended  first  to  building 
the  churches  for  the  Indians  they  were  converting  and  with 
whom  they  were  ministering  and  living.  And  so,  as  soon 
as  I  came  in  as  Custodian  [1622]  I  commenced  to  build 
the  church  and  monastery  —  and  to  the  glory  of  God  our 
Lord,  it  would  shine  in  whatsoever  place." 

68.    Mission    Churches    and    Schools.  —  The    mission 
churches  at  the  pueblos  were  built  by  the  Pueblo  women, 


SPANISH  MISSION  CHURCH  AT    ACOMA  BEGUN  ABOUT  1630 

boys,  and  girls,  while  the  men  wove  blankets,  fought, 
hunted,  and  gave  occasional  assistance  in  putting  the  heavy 
beams  into  place.  Each  mission  was  intended  to  be  not 
only  a  church  but  also  a  school  for  teaching  the  Indians 
reading,  writing,  singing,  and  the  manual  arts  and  crafts. 
In  his  primitive  workshop  the  missionary  taught  the  na- 
tives how  to  spin  and  weave  and  to  do  both  useful  and 
ornamental  work  in  wood  and  metal. 

69.    Development    of    the    Colony.  —  Throughout    this 
era  (1609-1680)  Santa  Fe  was  the  only  Spanish  villa,  or 


58  THE   HISTORY   OF   NEW   MEXICO 

incorporated  town,  in  New  Mexico.  Santa  Cruz  de  la 
Canada,  north  of  Santa  Fe,  was  the  only  other  "settlement" 
in  1680.  Population  grew  with  exceeding  slowness.  In 
1617  there  were  but  forty-eight  white  men  in  New  Mexico. 
Then  the  Spanish  government  was  stirred  to  give  some  aid 
in  order  to  save  the  colony,  and  by  1630  Santa  Fe  had  a 
Spanish  population  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  with  fifty 
half-breeds  and  seven  hundred  Indian  servants. 

As  the  years  went  by  and  settlers  continued  to  come, 
they  scattered  out  in  the  fertile  valleys  along  the  Rio 
Grande  from  Taos  to  Isleta,  not  realizing  the  necessity 
for  settling  in  small  compact  groups  for  self-protection. 
For  the  Pueblo  Indian  had  not  yet  proved  how  dangerous 
he  was :  his  efforts  at  rebellion  had  been  easily  suppressed. 

By  1680  the  population  had  grown  to  about  2,800, 
somewhat  more  than  half  of  it  in  the  lower  valley  around 
modern  Albuquerque,  the  remainder  in  the  Santa  Fe 
region  and  the  upper  valley. 

70.  The  Founding  of  El  Paso  del  Norte,  1659.  —  Be- 
tween the  struggling  colony  of  New  Mexico  and  the  northern 
settlements  of  New  Biscay  (now  Chihuahua)  lay  five  or 
six  hundred  miles  of  uninhabited  wilderness  —  a  danger- 
ous gap  to  leave  unfilled.     As  the  missions  of  New  Biscay 
gradually   pushed    northward   into    this    region    the    New 
Mexicans  struck  south  and  founded  the  mission  of  Guada- 
lupe  (gwa-tha-loo'pa)  del  Paso,  1659,  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  Rio  Grande  where  Juarez  (hwa'ras)  now  stands.     The 
corner  stone  of  its  first  church  was  laid  in  1662. 

II.  FRONTIER  EXPLORATION  AND  TRADE 

71.  Widening   the   Frontiers.  —  While   the   friars   were 
spreading  the  influence  of  the  Church  over  the  Pueblo 


EXPANSION  AND   OVERTHROW 


59 


country  from  Taos  to  San  Marcial  and  from  Pecos  to  Zuni 
and  Moqui,  and  the  settlers  were  taking  possession  of  the 
Rio  Grande  Valley,  the  soldiers  and  traders  were  extending 
their  knowledge  of  the  surrounding  regions.  In  this  they 
were  heartily  seconded  by  the  friars  because  it  extended 
the  field  of  mission  work. 

In  1630  Father  Benavides  urged  the  opening  of  an  over- 
land route  from  Santa  Fe  to  Matagorda  Bay  on  the  Gulf 


BENA/IDES'S  PROPOSED  ROUTE  TO  SANTA  FE 

coast  in  order  to  secure  a  shorter  and  more  direct  route 
from  Havana  to  New  Mexico  and  to  avoid  the  long  and 
difficult  overland  journey  from  Mexico  City  north. 

In  1634  Captain  Alonso  Baca  led  an  expedition  eight 
hundred  miles  to  the  northeast  in  search  of  Quivira;  and 
throughout  the  century  New  Mexican  frontiersmen  traded 
at  El  Cuartelejo  (elkwar-ta-la/ho),  an  Apache  village  north 
of  the  Arkansas. 

72.  Expansion  into  the  Texas  Country.  —  In  1629 
Fathers  Salas  (sa'las)  and  Lopez  with  a  few  soldiers  went 
a  hundred  leagues  southeast  of  Santa  Fe  to  the  country 


6o 


THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 


of  the  friendly  Jumano  Indians.  Again  in  1632  other 
friars  journeyed  through  the  same  region  two  hundred 
leagues  (more  than  500  miles)  and  worked  for  six  months 
among  the  Jumanos  on  the  upper  waters  of  the  Colorado 
River  of  Texas.  For  the  next  fifty  years,  until  the  Pueblo 
Rebellion  in  1680  (sees.  76-81),  New  Mexican  traders 
visited  this  region  regularly. 

In  1650  and  again  in  1654  important  military  and  trad- 
ing expeditions  from  Santa  Fe,  the  first  under  Captains 


TRADE  AND  EXPANSION 

IN  THE 

SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY 


Hernando  Martin  and  Diegc  del  Castillo,  the  latter  un- 
der Diego  de  Guadalajara  (gwa-tha-la-ha'ra),  visited  the 
Jumanos  and  went  on  down  the  Colorado  to  the  land  of 
the  Tejas  (ta'has)  Indians. 

73.   The  Mendoza-Lopez  Expedition  into  Texas,  1684.  - 
When  the  Pueblo  Rebellion  of  1680  (sees.   76-81)  drove 
the  Spaniards  out  of  New  Mexico,  it  also  broke  up  their 
trade  with^the  Jumanos.     Three  years  later  these  Indians 


EXPANSION   AND   OVERTHROW  6 1 

came  to  the  New  Mexicans  in  the  El  Paso  region  (sec.  82) 
and  asked  that  traders  and  missionaries  be  sent  again 
to  their  people  and  the  Tejas.  The  next  spring  an  expedi- 
tion under  Captain  Dominguez  (do-men'gas)  de  Mendoza 
and  Father  Nicolas  (ne-ko-las')  Lopez  went  east  into 
Texas  and  traded,  preached,  and  baptized  among  the 
Jumanos  and  Tejas  of  the  Colorado  River  country  most 
of  the  summer. 

The  viceroy  became  so  interested  in  the  region  that  he 
was  planning  to  plant  a  permanent  "settlement  there, 
when  the  landing  of  La  Salle  (la  sal')  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Lavaca  da-va'ka)  River  suddenly  transferred  Spanish  in- 
terest from  New  Mexico  and  western  Texas  to  the  Gulf 
coast. 

74.  Trade  Route  to  the  Gila  Country.  —  Expansion  in 
another  direction  has  been  almost  forgotten.     New  Mexican 
missionaries  from  the  Socorro  region  began  to  work  among 
the  Gila  Apaches  as  early  as  1629.     Soon  a  regular  overland 
trade  grew  up  between  the  New  Mexican  settlements  and 
the  Pima  (pe'ma)  Indians  of  the  Gila  and  San  Pedro  valleys 
in  southeastern  Arizona,  the  New  Mexicans  bartering  cloth, 
blankets,    and  knives  for  maize. 

75.  Summary  on  Expansion.  —  Thus,  in  addition  to  the 
ordinary   affairs  of  colonial  and  missionary  development, 
the  New  Mexican  pioneers  in  the  first  three  quarters  of 
the  seventeenth  century  had  explored  the  country  west 
to  the  Colorado  River,  north  and  east  to  the  Arkansas 
and  central  Oklahoma,  southeast  to  the  middle  Colorado 
and   Brazos   rivers  in  central  Texas,   and  had  definitely 
occupied  the  El  Paso  region.     They  were  staking  out  a 
wide  claim  for  the  Spanish  province  of  New  Mexico. 


62  THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

III.     THE   PUEBLO  REBELLION 

76.  Indian  Discontent.  —  During  this  period  of  expan- 
sion and  restless  activity  on  the  frontiers  the  development 
of  the  colony  was  hindered  by  bitter  controversies  between 
the   Spanish   political   and   religious   authorities.     A   new 
danger,  too,  was  appearing  in  the  changed  attitude  of  the 
Pueblo  Indians.     The  services  which  they  had  rendered 
to  the  newcomers  out  of  kindness  in  the  early  days  of  the 
colony  were  gradually  systematized  into  tribute  and  forced 
labor  which  they  were  required  to  give.     By  1630  they  were 
supporting  the  colony  at  Santa  Fe  by  tribute  of  cloth, 
corn,  and  other  supplies,  and  seven  hundred  of  them  were 
"  in  service  "  there.     The  Spaniard  had  become  a  task- 
master, and  the  Indian  was  beginning  to  think  of  himself  as 
a  slave.     Out  of  this  situation  trouble  was  sure  to  develop. 

There  were  religious  difficulties  too.  Though  the  Indians 
in  great  numbers  had  accepted  the  forms  of  Christianity, 
their  hearts  were  still  pagan.  Their  tribal  ceremonies 
and  customs  were  born  and  bred  in  them.  No  mission- 
aries, however  zealous,  could  wean  them  from  the  instinc- 
tive love  for  the  pagan  faith  of  their  fathers. 

77.  Trouble  Brewing.  —  By  the  middle  of  the  century 
they  were  ready  to  strike  a  murderous  blow  for  the  freedom 
which   their   fathers   had   enjoyed.     Their   plot  with   the 
Apaches  for  a  general  massacre  of  the  Spaniards  leaked 
out,  and  Governor  Fernando  Concha  (fer-nan'do  kon'cha) 
hanged  nine  of  the  leaders  and  sold  others  into  slavery 
for  ten  years.     Temporarily  beaten,  they  sullenly  waitep 
for  a  better  opportunity. 

78.  Plotting  Rebellion.  —  In  1675  the  governor  hanged 
three  of  their  medicine  men  for  witchcraft  and  severely 


EXPANSION  AND  OVERTHROW  63 

punished  more  than  forty  others.  One  of  the  number 
imprisoned  was  a  San  Juan  Indian  named  Pope  (po-pa'), 
who  now  began  organizing  the  Pueblos  to  drive  out  the 
Spaniards.  Driven  from  San  Juan  by  the  Spanish  officials, 
he  fled  to  Taos,  where  he  received  active  assistance  from 
Luis  Tupatu  (too-pa-too'),  of  Picuris  (pe-koo-res' ).  None 
but  the  leaders  were  to  know  of  their  plans  until  they  were 
ready  to  strike.  August  n,  1680,  was  the  appointed  time. 


SAN  JUAN  PUEBLO  TO-DAY 

Swift  runners  carried  the  word  throughout  the  Pueblo 
region.  With  the  aid  of  the  Apaches  they  would  murder 
every  priest,  raid  every  ranch,  and  destroy  the  capital  itself. 
79.  The  Uprising,  August  10.  —  On  August  9,  two  days 
before  the  time  set  for  the  uprising,  the  plot  became  known. 
Reports  came  to  Governor  Antonio  de  Otermin  (6-tar- 
men')  from  Taos,  Galisteo,  and  Pecos.  Two  Tesuque 
(ta-soo'ka)  plotters  were  arrested,  brought  to  Santa  Fe, 


64  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

and  made  to  tell  their  story  under  oath.  The  blow,  there- 
fore, must  be  struck  at  once  or  fail.  Again  swift  messengers 
sped  from  pueblo  to  pueblo;  and  in  the  early  morning 
hours  of  Saturday,  August  10,  the  slaughter  began. 

It  was  a  black  Saturday  for  the  Spaniards  in  New  Mexico. 
Throughout  the  country  to  the  north  of  Santa  Fe  very 
few  escaped  alive.  Out  of  seventy  in  the  Taos  Valley  only 
two  got  away.  Down  the  river  toward  Isleta  they  fared 
somewhat  better.  Only  about  a  hundred  and  twenty 
persons  were  killed  there,  while  fifteen  hundred  escaped 
with  the  assistance  of  rescue  parties  organized  by  Alonso 
Garcia,  the  governor's  lieutenant  in  that  section. 

80.  The  Siege  of  Santa  Fe.  —  The  settlers  in  the  Santa 
Fe  region  gathered  in  the  capital  and  prepared  for  defense. 
August  15  the  savage  hordes,  gathering  from  all  directions, 
surrounded  the  village  and  sent  to  the  governor  two  crosses, 
one  white,  the  other  red.     If  he  chose  the  white  cross  and 
promised  to  abandon  the  country  forever,  he  might  go  in 
peace.     But  if  he  chose  the  red  one  as  a  sign  that  the  Span- 
iards intended  to  fight,  the  Indians  meant  to  kill  them  to 
the  last  man. 

The  governor  prepared  for  the  life-and -death  struggle. 
The  Indians  cut  off  the  water  supply  and  besieged  the 
town.  Starvation  soon  stared  the  Spaniards  in  the  face ; 
and  early  Tuesday  morning,  August  20,  they  rushed  out, 
fell  upon  the  sleeping  Indians,  killed  three  hundred,  and 
took  forty-seven  captives.  Fifteen  hundred  other  braves 
fled  to  the  hills. 

81.  Departure   of  the   Spaniards.  —  Still   the   situation 
of  the  Spaniards  was  critical.     Their  kinsmen  down  the 
river  who  had  escaped  were  already  on  their  way  toward 
El  Paso.     All  the  others  were  dead.     Bloodthirsty  Pueblos 


EXPANSION   AND    OVERTHROW  65 

and  their  Apache  allies  haunted  the  country  in  every  di- 
rection. The  next  day  (August  21)  Governor  Otermin 
and  his  little  band  of  about  a  thousand  men,  women,  and 
children  moved  out  to  the  southwest,  most  of  them  on  foot 
and  carrying  all  their  possessions  in  little  bundles  on  their 
backs.  The  Indians  watched  them  from  the  surrounding 
hills  in  stolid  satisfaction  and  followed  them  seventy  miles 
down  the  river  to  see  that  they  kept  moving  on. 

Havoc  had  been  wrought  throughout  New  Mexico.  The 
Indians  had  not  spared  men,  women,  or  children.  Their 
victims  numbered  more  than  four  hundred,  including  twenty- 
one  Franciscan  missionaries. 

82.  El    Paso    Becomes    the    Capital,    1680-1693.  —  In 
October  the  refugees  settled  along  the  west  bank  of  the 
Rio  Grande  by  the  mission  of  Guadalupe  del  Paso,  New 
Mexico's  southern  outpost,  which  now  became  the  official 
residence  of  her  governor.     It  was  New  Mexico's  fourth 
capital.     The  reconquest  was  to  take  many  years. 

83.  A  Decade  of  Indian  Freedom.  —  With  the  Spaniards 
gone  the  Pueblos  began  to  celebrate  their  victory  in  true 
Indian  fashion.      Churches    and    altars   were    burned   or 
torn  down.     Government  records  and  everything  that  re- 
minded   them   of    Christianity    and    the    Spaniards   were 
destroyed.     Indians  who  had  been  baptized  by  the  Chris- 
tian priests  were  publicly  washed  in  the  Santa  Fe  River 
to  cleanse  them  of  the  stain.     Christian  marriages  were 
annulled.     The  work  of  a  century  was  undone. 

GENERAL  READINGS 

H.  H.  BANCROFT,  History  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  157-185. 
W.  W.  H.  DAVIS,  The  Spanish  Conquest  of  New  Mexico,  279-306. 
L.  B.  PRINCE,  A  Concise  History  of  New  Mexico,  105-114. 
B.  M.  READ,  Illustrated  History  of  New  Mexico,  249-271. 


66  THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

R.  E.  TWITCHELL,  The  Leading  Facts  of  New  Mexican  History,  I,  335- 
367. 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

1.  NEW  MEXICO  IN  THE  TIME  OF  BENAVIDES.     Mrs.  E.  E.  Ayer  (tr.), 
The  Memorial  of  Fray  Alonso  dc  Benavides,  1630,  Annotated  by  F.  W.  Hodge 
and  C.  F.  Lummis ;  J.  H.  Vaughan,  History  of  Education  in  New  Mexico, 
Chapter  III. 

2.  EXPLORATIONS  INTO  WESTERN  TEXAS.     H.  E.  Bolton,  Spanish  Ex- 
ploration in  the  Southwest,  1542-1706  ("Original  Narratives"  Series),  311- 
344,  contains  a  scholarly  Introduction  on  the  general  subject  of  eastern  ex- 
ploration, with  a  translation  of  the  original  narrative  of  the  Mendoza-L6pez 
Expedition  of  1684. 

3.  THE  PUEBLO  REBELLION.     C.  W.  Hackett,  "The  Revolt  of  the  Pueblo 
Indians  of  New  Mexico  in  1680,"  in  The  Quarterly  of  the  Texas  State  His- 
torical Association,  XV.  (Oct.,  1911),  93-147. 

4.  THE  DEPARTURE  OF  THE  SPANIARDS.     C.  W.  Hackett,  "  Retreat  of 
the  Spaniards  from  New  Mexico  in  1680,  and  the  Beginnings  of  El  Paso," 
in  Southwestern   Historical   Quarterly,  XVI    (Oct.,  I9i2-Jan.,  1913),  137- 
168,  259-276. 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  What  were  the  chief  interests  that  led  to  the  settlement  of  New  Mexico  ? 
Why  did  the  colony  grow  so  slowly? 

2.  How  were  the  missions  supported?    What  else  did  the  missionaries 
do  besides  teaching  religion?     Who  was  Father  Alonso  Benavides? 

3.  What  do  we  know  about  the  first  church  in  Santa  Fe? 

4.  How  much  did  the  population  increase  by  1680?    Where  did  the 
settlers  live? 

5.  Why  was  El  Paso  del  Norte  settled  by  New  Mexico?     When? 

6.  Why  was  a  route  from  New  Mexico  to  the  Texas  coast  desired  ? 

7.  What  were  the  principal  objects  of  the  numerous  expeditions  into 
western   Texas?     Give    an    account    of    the    Mendoza-Lopez    expedition. 
Point  out  the  routes  traveled  and  regions  visited. 

8.  What  was  the  interest  of  the  New  Mexicans  in  the  Gila  country  of 
Arizona? 

9.  What  were  the  chief  causes  of  the  Pueblo  Rebellion?     What  was  the 
plan?     How  far  did  it  succeed? 

10.  Describe  the  siege  of  Santa  Fe  and  the  departure  of  the  Spaniards. 
Where  was  the  fourth  capital? 

11.  How  did  the  Indians  use  their  freedom? 


CHAPTER  VI 


RECONQUEST  AND   NORTHEASTERN  EXPANSION,   1680-1762 

84.  Efforts   to   Reconquer   New   Mexico.  —  When   the 
Spaniards  from  New  Mexico  reached  the  El  Paso  region 
in   the  fall  of   1680  (sec. 

82),  they  learned  that  the 
Indians  of  Sonora  and 
New  Biscay  were  showing 
signs  of  restlessness  and 
unusual  activity.  The  re- 
maining years  of  the  cen- 
tury were  to  be  a  period 
of  Indian  uprisings  and 
disturbances  along  the 
whole  northern  frontier  of 
New  Spain.  New  Mexico 
had  experienced  the  first 
and  most  violent  of  them. 
If  the  Pueblo  revolt  went 
unpunished,  there  was 
danger  that  it  might  en- 
courage others. 

During  the  next  ten 
years,  therefore,  many 
attempts  were  made  to 
reconquer  the  province, 
but  without  success. 

85.  The  Coming  of  De  Vargas.  —  In   1690  the  viceroy 
appointed   Don   Diego   de   Vargas,    (var'gas)   governor   of 

67 


L 


THE  COAT  OF  ARMS  OF  GOVERNOR  DE 
VARGAS 


68  THE  HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

New  Mexico.  In  August,  1692,  he  set  out  from  El  Paso 
with  three  hundred  men  for  the  reconquest.  September 
13,  they  surrounded  the  villa  of  Santa  F6,  now  an  Indian 
pueblo,  cut  off  its  water  supply  and  all  communication, 
and  demanded  its  surrender.  The  red  men  blustered  and 
threatened,  but  surrendered  before  night. 

De  Vargas  then  journeyed  through  the  who.e  Pueblo 
region  north  to  Taos  and  west  to  Zuni  and  Moqui.  Every- 
where the  natives  surrendered  without  resistance.  At 
Zuni  he  found  the  vestments  of  the  priests  and  other  sacred 
property  of  the  church  —  the  only  relics  of  Christianity 
in  New  Mexico  that  had  survived  the  Rebellion.  Without 
fighting  a  battle  or  losing  a  man,  except  in  an  encounter 
with  the  Apaches,  he  returned  to  El  Paso  before  Christmas. 

86.  The  Reoccupation,  1693.  —  After  long   delays   De 
Vargas  got  together  eight  hundred  colonists  and  a  hundred 
soldiers  at  El  Paso  and  started  north  for  the  permanent 
reoccupation  of  the  country  in  October  of  the  following 
year    (1693).     December    19    they   entered    the   plaza   at 
Santa  Fe  without  opposition.     The  soldiers  were  garrisoned 
on  the  hill,  and  the  colonists  camped  near  by.     All  were 
suffering  from  the  bitter  cold,  and  De  Vargas  ordered  the 
Indians   to   vacate   the   town.     Instead,   they   closed   the 
gates    and    barricaded    every    entrance.     The    Governor 
promptly  assaulted  the  place  with  his  whole  force.     On 
the   second    day    the    Indians   surrendered.     The   Pueblo 
governor   had   already   hanged   himself.     Seventy   of   his 
braves  were  now  executed,  and  four  hundred  of  the  women 
and   children   delivered   up   as   servants   to    the   Spanish 
families. 

87.  Later  Uprisings.  —  The  bloody  scenes  that  closed 
the  year  1693  were  but  the  beginning  of  the  Pueblos'  efforts 


RECONQUEST  AND   NORTHEASTERN  EXPANSION        69 

to  shake  off  Spanish  control  before  it  became  firmly  es- 
tablished. Most  of  the  central  and  northern  pueblos  were 
in  a  state  of  insurrection  throughout  the  coming  year. 
The  Governor  and  his  small  force  were  kept  busy  holding 
them  in  subjection. 

Again  in  1696  the  Pueblos  rose  in  revolt  and  murdered 
six  or  seven  missionaries  and  about  twenty  other  Spaniards. 
Taos,  Picuris,  Cochiti  (ko-che-te'),  Santo  Domingo,  Jemez, 
and  Acoma  had  to  be  punished  before  they  would  quit  the 
warpath.  Soon,  however,  the  Pueblos  recognized  that 
they  were  beaten.  Thenceforth  they  gave  little  trouble. 

88.  Development  of  the  Missions.  —  Sixteen  or  seven- 
teen missionaries  came  with  De  Vargas  in  the  fall  of  1693. 
By  the  end  of  the  following  year  they  were  able  to  rees- 
tablish mission  work  in  at  least  eighteen  pueblos.     Church 
building  and  mission  extension  made  steady  progress.     In 
1708-1710  the  Chapel  of  San  Miguel  in  Santa  Fe,  ruined 
by  the  Pueblos  in  1680,  was  restored  by  Governor  Penuela 
(pa-nwa'la).     By  1750  there  were  more  than  10,000  bap- 
tized Indians.     When  the  Bishop  of  Durango  visited  the 
province  in  1760  he  confirmed  11,271  in  New  Mexico  proper 
and  2,973  m  the  El  Paso  district. 

Yet  the  missions  did  not  flourish.  The  friars'  limited 
knowledge  of  the  Indian  languages  was  a  constant  handi- 
cap. The  old  ugly  quarrel  between  the  friars  and  the 
political  officials  over  the  control  of  Indians  at  the  missions 
went  on  with  increasing  bitterness.  To  make  matters  worse 
the  officials  forced  the  Indians  to  work  without  pay  and 
practically  enslaved  many  of  them. 

89.  Paganism  and  Witchcraft.  —  Pagan  rites  flourished 
as  before  the  Pueblo  Rebellion.     Medicine  men  claiming 
supernatural  powers  were  able  to  appeal  to  the  fears  of 


70  THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

the  superstitious  Pueblos.  In  the  effort  to  deal  with  these 
"  witches "  in  the  early  eighteenth  century,  witchcraft 
trials  became  somewhat  frequent  in  New  Mexico  soon 
after  they  died  out  in  New  England.  A  favorite  punish- 
ment for  the  witches  was  to  make  them  servants  in  Spanish 
families. 

90.  The  Founding  of  La  Canada  and  Albuquerque.  - 
Two  years  after  the  Reconquest  a  new  Spanish  town  of 
seventy  families,  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Canada,  was  founded 
(1695)  m  the  Ri°  Grande  Valley  thirty  miles  north  of 
Santa  Fe.     About  the  same  time  small  settlements,  called 
poblaciones   (po-bla-syo'nas),  were  begun  at  Los  Cerrillos 
(los  sa-re'yos)  and  Bernalillo. 

Francisco  Cuervo  (kwar'vo),  who  succeeded  De  Vargas 
as  temporary  governor,  hit  upon  the  idea  of  perpetuating 
his  name  by  founding  a  new  settlement  and  naming  it  for 
himself  and  the  viceroy,  the  Duke  of  Alburquerque.  In 
1706  he  located  about  thirty  Spanish  families  in  the  Rio 
Grande  Valley  sixty  miles  southwest  of  Santa  Fe,  naming 
the  place  "  San  Francisco  de  Alburquerque."  The  viceroy 
ordered  the  "  San  Francisco  "  changed  to  "  San  Felipe  " 
(fa-le'pa)  in  honor  of  King  Philip  of  Spain.  The  third 
Spanish  colonial  town,  therefore,  became  San  Felipe  de 
Alburquerque.  Succeeding  generations  dropped  the  first 
"  r  "  out  of  Alburquerque,  and  later  ones  have  dropped 
the  "  San  Felipe."  It  is  to-day  the  "  Old  Town  "  part  of 
the  city  of  Albuquerque. 

91.  Slow    Growth   of   the    Colony.  —  During    the   first 
half  of  the  century  the  colony  grew  slowly.     Two  thousand 
miles  of  Indian-haunted  desert  lay  between  Mexico  City 
and  Santa  Fe.     It  took  a  caravan  six  months  to  make  the 
journey.     New  Mexico  was  not  an  inviting  field  except 


RECONQUEST  AND   NORTHEASTERN   EXPANSION        71 

for  those  rare  pioneer  spirits  who  loved  the  solitude  of  the 
wilderness  and  feared  no  danger.  Year  by  year,  however, 
new  ranch  houses  appeared  in  the  fertile  valleys  of  the  Rio 
Grande  and  its  tributaries.  In  these  valleys  agriculture 
increased,  while  stock  raising  extended  to  the  near-by  hills 
and  plains. 

The  Spanish  population,  1,500  in  1700,  had  grown  to 
7,666  in  the  fourteen  settlements  north  of  the  Jornada  in 
1760,  with  3,588  in  the  presidio  (pra-se'dyo)  and  five 
missions  of  the  El  Paso  district.  Santa  Fe  numbered  1,285  '•> 
La  Canada,  1,515;  Albuquerque,  1,814.  There  were 
10,000  baptized  Pueblos. 

92.  Military  Protection.  —  About  the  beginning  of  the 
year  1697  the  viceroy  ordered  the  Santa  Fe  garrison 
strengthened  to  a  hundred  well-equipped  soldiers.  Eighty 
men,  however,  became  the  regular  full  strength  of  the 
Veteran  Company  at  the  capital  —  the  only  garrison  in  the 
province  —  and  the  actual  number  was  generally  much 
smaller.  "  Flying  squadrons  "  of  five  or  six  mounted  men 
were  stationed  at  Santa  Clara,  Cochiti,  Jemez,  and  Laguna 
(la-goo' na).  That  was  all.  Great  reliance,  therefore, 
had  to  be  placed  on  the  militia,  or  untrained  citizen  sol- 
diery, in  every  Indian  campaign. 

To  make  the  southern  highway  to  El  Paso  safer  the  New 
Mexicans  urged  the  necessity  of  establishing  a  presidio 
of  fifty  soldiers  and  two  hundred  settlers  at  Socorro  and  a 
presidio  of  fifty  soldiers  at  Aguatuvi  (a-gwa-too Ve) .  The 
central  government  did  nothing.  Soon  after  1770  the 
governor  established  a  presidio  of  thirty  soldiers  and  thirty 
settlers  from  El  Paso  at  Robledo  (ro-bla'tho)  near  modern 
Fort  Selden,  for  protection  against  the  Apaches  in  the 
region  south  of  the  Jornada. 


72  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

He  also  recommended  the  establishment  of  a  new  pre- 
sidio at  the  great  trading  center  of  Taos  and  the  concentra- 
tion of  the  colonists  into  compact  settlements  as  a  means 
of  protection.  Their  widely  scattered  settlements  and 
ranches  were  too  exposed  to  Indian  attack. 

93.  Indian   Troubles.  —  All   through    the   first   half   of 
the  century  the  Indians  were  constantly  on  the  warpath. 
The  hand  of  the  Apache  was  turned  against  everybody 
who  came'  within  his  reach.     From  the  Navajos  and  the 
Utes  he  received  constant  help  against  the  white  man. 
And  the  New  Mexican  settlements  fared  badly. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  century  (about  1700)  the  Co- 
manches  began  to  drift  in  from  the  eastern  plains  and 
attack  Pecos  and  Galisteo.  In  1724  they  swarmed  into 
the  country  of  the  friendly  Jicarilla  (he-ka-re'ya)  Apaches 
to  the  northeast  of  Santa  Fe  and  killed  most  of  the  tribe. 
How  Pecos  suffered  from  their  coming  is  best  told  by  the 
decline  of  its  population  from  about  2,000  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  to  1,000  in  1749,  600  in  1760,  and  189  in 
1797.  The  last  members  of  the  tribe  abandoned  the  pueblo 
and  went  to  their  kinsmen  at  Jemez  in  1838. 

Against  all  these  enemies  the  governors  and  their  troops, 
with  assistance  from  the  Pueblos  and  Spanish  settlers, 
fought  a  long  series  of  fruitless  campaigns  —  fruitless  be- 
cause it  was  impossible  to  catch  and  punish  the  wily  savage 
in  haunts  which  he  knew  better  than  the  white  man.  As 
a  result  the  campaigns  had  to  be  repeated  year  after  year. 

94.  The    Coming    of    the    French.  —  Throughout    the 
seventeenth  century  (1600-1700)  the  Spanish  province  of 
New  Mexico  had  a  constant  struggle  with  the  Indians  to 
maintain  its  existence,  but  it  was  undisturbed  by  other 
Europeans.     At  the  opening  of  the  eighteenth  century, 


RECONQUEST  AND   NORTHEASTERN   EXPANSION        73 

however,  a  new  peril  was  ready  to  appear  on  the  eastern 
frontier  —  the  white  man  this  time. 

The  French  had  been  working  their  way  inland  from  the 
St.  Lawrence  to  the  Mississippi  and  down  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  La  Salle's  colony  (sec.  73)  landed  on  the  Texas 
coast  just  five  years  after  the  Pueblo  Rebellion  drove  the 


THE  COMING 

or  THE 
FRENCH 


Spaniards  out  of  New  Mexico  (sees.  76-81).  Two  years 
later  some  of  his  renegade  followers  murdered  him  and  were 
themselves  taken  prisoners  to  New  Spain.  Still  later  a 
few  of  them  were  with  De  Vargas  in  the  reconquest  of 
New  Mexico  in  1693  (sees.  85-86).  Among  these  first 
Frenchmen  in  the  colony  was  Jean  de  1'Archeveque  (zhan 
de  larsh-veV),  one  of  the  assassins  of  the  great  explorer. 


74  THE  HISTORY   OF  NEW  MEXICO 

The  old  story  of  great  mineral  wealth  in  New  Mexico  had 
long  ago  reached  France,  and  Frenchmen  in  America  were 
keenly  interested.  In  1706,  when  Captain  Juan  Uribarri 
(66-re-bar're),  on  an  expedition  against  the  Utes  and  Co- 
manches,  visited  El  Cuartelejo,  he  heard  of  Frenchmen 
among  the  Pawnees.  In  1719,  and  again  in  1721,  La  Harpe 
(la  arp')  from  Natchitoches  (nak-i-tosh'),  the  western 
outpost  of  Louisiana,  undertook  trading  expeditions  to 
Santa  Fe,  first  up  the  Red  River  and  then  up  the  Arkansas. 
It  was  clear  that  the  French  planned  to  control  the  trade 
of  the  northeastern  frontier  provinces  of  New  Spain  and 
eventually  to  extend  their  power  over  the  whole  region. 

95.  Northeastern  Expeditions  of  Valverde  and  Villasur. 
-The  first  counter  move  against  this  steady  French  ad- 
vance was  made  by  Governor  Antonio  Valverde  (val-ver'da). 
In  the  summer  of  1719  he  made  a  long  campaign  against 
the  Utes  and  Comanches  beyond  the  Arkansas  almost  to 
El  Cuartelejo.  On  the  Arkansas  the  Apaches  told  him 
of  a  recent  battle  with  the  Kansas  and  Pawnee  Indians, 
in  which  their  enemies  had  been  equipped  with  firearms 
and  aided  by  the  French,  who  had  established  settlements 
on  the  Platte  River. 

The  following  spring  (1720),  under  orders  from  the  vice- 
roy, the  Governor  fitted  out  a  small  expedition  of  forty 
soldiers,  sixty  Pueblo  Indians,  and  ten  or  twelve  servants 
under  Captain  Pedro  Villasur  (ve-ya-soor')  for  the  purpose 
of  gathering  information  about  French  activity  on  the 
northeastern  frontier.  The  Frenchman,  Jean  de  PArche- 
veque,  now  a  resident  of  New  Mexico  for  more  than  a 
quarter  of  a  century,  Was  taken  along  as  interpreter.  They 
went  by  Taos,  La  Jicarilla,  and  El  Cuartelejo  northeast- 
ward to  the  junction  of  the  North  and  South  Platte  'in 


RECONQUEST  AND   NORTHEASTERN   EXPANSION        75 

central  Nebraska.  Hearing  nothing  of  the  French,  they 
prepared  to  return  to  New  Mexico.  As  they  were  breaking 
camp  on  the  morning  of  August  13  the  Pawnee  Indians, 
with  firearms  secured  from  French  traders,  fell  upon  them 
in  a  surprise  attack  and  cut  them  to  pieces,  killing  Villasur 
and  forty-four  others,  including  Archeveque  and  Friar 
Juan  Martinez,  the  chaplain.  Only  thirteen  survived  to 
tell  the  story  of  the  "  Lost  Expedition." 

News  of  this  disaster  reaching  Santa  Fe  September  6 
threw  the  colonists  into  panic.  They  felt  sure  that  the 
French  were  behind  the  whole  plot  and  would  soon  attack 
New  Mexico  itself.  They  even  considered  abandoning 
the  province. 

96.  The  End  of  Northeastern  Expansion,  1727.  —  The 
next  year  (1721),  however,  France  and  Spain  made  peace 
in  Europe,  and  the  government  of  New  Spain  soon  gave 
up   its   projects   of   northeastern   expansion.     Henceforth 
the  New  Mexicans  would  have  to  work  out  their  plans  in 
that  direction  on  their  own  resources.     To  make  matters 
worse  the  Spanish  government  forbade   (1723)   all   trade 
with  the  French  and  limited  trade  with  the  plains  Indians 
to  those  who  came  to  Taos  and  Pecos.     Such  a  decree  was 
not  likely  to  be  strictly  obeyed  in  this  remote  region ;  and 
the  contest  of  Spaniard  and  Frenchman  for  the  control 
of  the  great  plains  went  on  unchecked. 

97.  The  French  Advance  Continues.  —  The  next  French- 
men to  reach  New  Mexico  —  the  first  to  come  across  the 
plains  from  the  east  —  were  the  Mallet  (mal-le')  brothers 
and  seven  or  eight  other  Canadian  fur  traders  who  came 
from    the   Missouri    and    the   Platte    through   Nebraska, 
Kansas,  and  southeastern  Colorado  to  Taos  and  Santa  Fe 
in  1739.    Two  of  them  stayed  in  New  Mexico.     The  re- 


76  THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

turn  of  the  others  the  next  spring,  part  of  them  across  the 
plains  to  Illinois,  the  others  down  the  Canadian  and  Ar- 
kansas to  New  Orleans,  marked  the  beginning  of  a  new 
epoch.  They  haH  come  through  the  dangerous  Indian 
country  to  New  Mexico  and  returned  in  safety.  More- 
over, they  had  carried  back  with  them  the  first  definite 
information  about  the  trade  and  internal  conditions  of  the 
province. 

Results  were  immediate  and  far-reaching.  Heretofore 
the  French  advance  had  been  primarily  the  work  of  the 
private  trader  and  trapper.  Now  the  French  officials  in 
Louisiana  began  to  take  an  active  interest  in  this  region. 
The  very  next  year  (1741)  Governor  Bienville  (byan-vel7) 
sent  out  a  party  to  open  up  trade  with  Santa  Fe  by  way  of 
the  Arkansas  and  Canadian  rivers,  but  they  never  reached 
Santa  Fe.  Again  in  1751  St.  Clair,  the  French  commander 
at  Fort  Chartres,  Illinois,  sent  out  Jean  Chapuis  (sha-pwe') 
with  a  party  of  traders  and  a  government  license  to  open 
a  regular  overland  trade  route  to  Santa  Fe,  proposing  a 
military  escort  through  the  Comanche  country.  Coming 
by  way  of  the  Platte  River,  Chapuis  and  one  companion 
reached  Santa  Fe  the  following  year  (1752),  only  to  have 
their  goods  confiscated  and  to  be  themselves  sent  on  to 
prison  in  Mexico  City  and  Spain. 

In  the  meantime  Pierre  Satren  (pyer  sa-tran')  and  two 
other  French  deserters,  Febre  (febr')  and  Riballo  (re-ba'yo), 
came  up  the  Arkansas  to  the  Taos  fair  and  down  to  Santa 
Fe  in  1749.  They  stayed  and  worked  at  their  trades. 
Other  traders  with  the  silent  backing  of  their  government 
were  steadily  gaining  influence  over  the  plains  Indians  by 
giving  them  French  flags  and  presents  and  trading  them 
firearms.  The  stealing  of  horses  and  mules  from  the 


RECONQUEST  AND   NORTHEASTERN   EXPANSION        77 

New  Mexican  settlements  and  trading  them  to  the  French 
was  becoming  a  regular  Comanche  enterprise.  The  Co- 
manches  were  frequently  better  equipped  with  horses  and 
arms  than  were  the  Spanish  soldiers  who  tried  to  defend 
the  settlements  against  their  raids. 

98.  The  Frontier  Problem  Changes,  1762.  —  Toward 
the  close  of  the  French  and  Indian  War  Spain  received  from 
France  all  of  Louisiana  west  of  the  Mississippi.  Its  in- 
habitants now  became  Spanish  subjects.  The  frontier 
problem  of  holding  back  the  French  and  protecting  the 
northeastern  boundary  ceased  to  exist.  A  contest  for  the 
trade  of  the  plains  took  its  place.  Frenchman  and  Span- 
iard had  each  his  own  characteristic  method  of  dealing 
with  the  Indians.  The  Spaniards  had  controlled  the  south- 
western tribes  largely  through  the  slow  civilizing  process, 
in  which  the  missions  were  the  chief  instruments.  The 
French  among  the  wild  tribes  to  the  east  had  found  the 
licensed  trader  a  more  effective  means  of  control.  In 
this  new  contest  the  Spaniards  adopted  the  French  policy 
of  dealing  with  the  wild  tribes  by  giving  them  presents, 
presenting  them  flags,  and  furnishing  them  food  to  win 
their  friendship  and  keep  them  hostile  to  all  foreigners. 
The  French  peril  had  ceased  to  exist ;  but  a  more  danger- 
ous one,  the  English  peril,  must  be  guarded  against. 

GENERAL  READINGS 

H.  H.  BANCROFT,  History  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  186-254. 

W.  W.  H.  DAVIS,  The  Spanish  Conquest  of  New  Mexico,  307-417. 

L.  B.  PRINCE,  A  Concise  History  of  New  Mexico,  114-126. 

H.  M.  READ,  Illustrated  History  of  New  Mexico,  272-334. 

R.  E.  TWITCHELL,  The  Leading  Facts  of  New  Mexican  History,  I,  367-445. 


78  THE  HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

1.  ATTEMPTS  AT  RECONQUEST.    C.  W.  Hackett,  "Otermin's  Attempt  to 
Reconquer  New  Mexico,   1681-1682,"  in  Old  Santa  Ft,  III   (Jan.-Apr., 
1916),  44-84,  103-132;  "The  Causes  for  the  Failure  of  Otermin's  Attempt 
to  Reconquer  New  Mexico,  1681-1682,"  in  The  Pacific  Ocean  in  History, 
439-451. 

2.  LATER  PUEBLO  DISTURBANCES.     R.  E.  Twitchell  (ed.),  "The  Pueblo 
Revolt  of  1696"  (Documents),  in  Old  Santa  Fe,  III  (Oct.,  1916),  333-373. 

3.  THE  EL  PASO  DISTRICT  AND  THE  SOUTHERN  BOUNDARY  OF  NEW 
MEXICO.     A.  E.  Hughes,  "The  Beginnings  of  Spanish  Settlement  in  the 
El  Paso  District,"  in  University  of  California  Publications  in  History,  I, 
295-392. 

4.  THE  FRENCH  ADVANCE  TOWARD  NEW  MEXICO.     H.  E.  Bolton,  "  French 
Intrusions  into  New  Mexico,  1749-1752,"  in  The  Pacific  Ocean  in  History, 
389-407;  Texas  in  the  Middle  Eighteenth  Century,  66-72;  W.  E.  Dunn, 
"Spanish  Reaction  against  the   French  Advance  toward    New  Mexico, 
1717-1727,"  in  Mississippi  Valley  Historical  Review,  II  (Dec.,  1915),  348- 
362. 

5.  THE  PLAINS  INDIAN  PROBLEM.    H.  E.  Bolton  (ed.),  Athanase  de  Me- 
zieres  and  the  Louisiana-Texas  Frontier,  1768-1780.     2  vols.     See  especially 
the  learned  Historical  Introduction  on  "The  Indian  in  the  History  of  the 
Louisiana-Texas  Frontier,   1685-1780,"  I,   17-66. 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Give  an  account  of  the  reconquest  by  De  Vargas.     How  many  colonists 
came  with  him  to  reoccupy  the  province  in  1693?     How  were  they  received 
by  the  Indians  at  Santa  Fe? 

2.  Was  there  further  trouble  with  the  Pueblos  ?     When  were  the  missions 
reestablished  ? 

3.  How  do  you  explain  belief  in  "witches"?     Was  it  peculiar  to  New 
Mexico  ? 

4.  When  was  Albuquerque  founded ?     How  did  it  get  its  name? 

5.  As  the  colony  grew  where  did  the  settlers  go?     How  did  they  live? 
How  large  was  the  Spanish  population  in  1 760? 

6.  What  military  protection  did  the  province  have?     In  what  other 
regions  were  garrisons  especially  needed?     Why  did  Taos  need  one? 

7.  What  new  enemies  appeared  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  ? 
Where  did  they  come  from?     Why  did  the  campaigns  against  the  Indians 
accomplish  so  little? 

8.  Why  were  the  French  interested  in  New  Mexico?    What  were  some 
of  their  earliest  ventures  in  this  direction? 

9.  What  rivers  would  be  helpful  to  them  in  getting  to  New  Mexico  ?     See 
map.     What  influence  does  geography  have  on  history? 


RECONQUEST  AND    NORTHEASTERN   EXPANSION       79 

10.  How  did  the  Spaniards  regard  the  French  advance?     What  was  the 
object  of  Valverde's  expedition  to  the  northeast?     Villasur's?     What  was 
the  effect  of  the  "Lost  Expedition"  on  New  Mexico? 

11.  Why  did  the  Spanish  government  give  up  its  plans  for  northeastern 
expansion  ?     Who  were  the  first  Frenchmen  to  reach  New  Mexico  from  the 
east?     What  effect  did  their  journey  have? 

12.  How  was  the  northeastern  frontier  problem  changed  after  1762? 
How  did  the  New  Mexicans  then  deal  with  the  Indians  in  that  region? 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE   CLOSE   OF  THE   SPANISH  ERA,   1762-1821 

99.  The    Indian   Danger    Continues.  —  The    policy    of 
frankly  seeking  the  friendship  of    the  plains  Indians   in 
order  to  control  the  trade  of  the  plains  (sec.  98)  caused  the 
last  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century  to  be  a  period  of  com- 
parative peace  with  those  tribes.     Yet  it  did  not  free  the 
settlements  from  the  constant  danger  of  the  Indian  whose 
natural  bent  was  to  steal  and  murder.     The  Apaches  on  the 
lower  Rio  Grande  and  in  the  Magdalena  Mountains  were 
a  constant  menace  to  travelers  over  the  highway  toward 
El    Paso.     The    Comanches    could    never   be    controlled ; 
and  when  they  swept  in  from  the  east  for  a  raid,  it  was 
usually  a  bloody  affair. 

100.  Organization  of  the   Interior   Provinces,   1776.  - 
To  meet  the  constant  Indian  pressure  on  the  northeastern 
frontier  and  to  check  the  English  advance  in  that  same 
region  Spanish  officials  planned  a  complete  reorganization 
of  the  frontier.     The  first  step  was  taken  in  1772,  when  a 
new  officer,  known  as  the  Inspector  Comandante  (ens-pek- 
tor'  ko-man-dan'ta),  or  Chief  Inspector,  directly  respon- 
sible to  the  viceroy  and  later  to  the  commanding  general 
of  the  Interior  Provinces,  was  given  general  supervision  of 
the  whole  line  of  frontier  presidios  from  Texas  to  Cali- 
fornia and   the  direction  of  military  campaigns  in   that 
region.     It  is  interesting  to  recognize  the  good  Irish  name 
of  Hugo  Oconor  as  the  first  person  to  hold  this  important 
position  in  the  defense  of  New  Spain. 

80 


THE    CLOSE  OF  THE   SPANISH   ERA  8l 

In  1776  a  new  government  called  the  Promncias  Internas 
(pro-ven'syas  en-ter'nas),  or  Interior  Provinces,  includ- 
ing originally  Texas,.  Coahuila  (kwa-we'la),  New  Mexico, 
New  Biscay,  Sinaloa,  Sonora,  and  the  Californias,  was 
organized  under  a  commanding  general  appointed  by 
the  king  and  independent  of  the  viceroy.  From  his  capi- 
tal at  Chihuahua  he  controlled  all  political,  military,  and 
financial  affairs  within  his  wide  dominions.  Judicial 
matters,  however,  remained  under  the  Audiencia  (ow- 
dyan'sya),  or  high  court  of  appeal,  at  Guadalajara. 

The  Apaches  and  Comanches  were  needing  prompt 
attention;  and  the  first  Commanding  General,  Teodoro 
de  Croix  (ta-6-tho'ro  da  krwa),  self-styled  "  El  Caballero 
de  Croix,"  went  about  his  task  with  a  vigor  worthy  of  the 
earlier  days. 

101.  First  Attempt  at  Communication  with  California.  - 
In  July,   1776,  the  very  year  of  the  organization  of  the 
Interior  Provinces,  Fathers  Escalante   (es-ka-lan'ta)    and 
Dominguez  set  out  from  Santa  Fe  with  eight  companions 
to  find  a  trail  to  the  new  missions  at  Monterey,  California. 
They  went   northwest  up   the  valley  of  the  Chama  by 
Abiquiu    (a-be-ku'),    across    the   upper   San   Juan   Basin, 
through   southwestern   Colorado,    across    the    Green   and 
Grand  rivers  to  Utah  Lake  in  north  central  Utah,  then 
southwest  to  Sevier  (se-ver')  Lake.      But  with   the  trail 
to  California  uncertain  and  winter  rapidly  approaching, 
they  turned  back  by  the  Grand  Canyon  and  Zuni  and 
reached  Santa  Fe,   January   3,    1777.     This  Old  Spanish 
Trail  from  Santa  Fe  into  central  Utah  became  the  first 
stage  in  the  more  famous  Spanish  Trail  from  Santa  Fe 
to  Los  Angeles  after  1830  (sec.  129). 

102.  Communication   with    Other    Colonies.  —  One   of 


82 


THE   HISTORY  OF   NEW   MEXICO 


THE  CLOSE  OF  THE   SPANISH  ERA  83 

the  favorite  projects  of  the  commanding  general  of  the 
Interior  Provinces  was  to  establish  a  complete  system  of 
communication  among  the  provinces  under  his  jurisdic- 
tion. In  1778  he  sent  Juan  Bautista  de  Anza  (an'sa), 
who  had  led  the  first  overland  expedition  from  Sonora  to 
Upper  California,  as  governor  of  New  Mexico  with  special 
instructions  to  open  direct  communication  between  Santa 
Fe  and  Monterey  on  the  California  coast.  Three  years 
later  (1781)  he  suggested  that  Anza  undertake  similar 
communication  with  Coahuila,  northern  Sonora,  and  San 
Antonio,  Texas.  New  Mexico  was  becoming  a  center  of 
operations.  In  the  first  and  second  of  these  projects 
nothing  was  accomplished.  In  the  third,  the  route  to 
Sonora,  Anza  took  a  hundred  and  fifty  men  to  the  south- 
west, hoping  to  reopen  the  old  seventeenth  century  trade 
route  (sec.  74)  to  the  Gila  country  and  the  presidio  of  Santa 
Cruz.  But  he  came  out  at  Janos  (ha'nos)  in  New  Bis- 
cay, a  point  too  near  El  Paso  to  have  any  special  value. 

103.  The  Trail  to  San  Antonio. — The  fourth  venture  was 
more  successful — not  for  Anza,  however ;  for  it  was  accom- 
plished by  the  Texans.  Ever  since  the  founding  of  San 
Antonio  (1718)  the  Spaniards  had  needed  direct  communi- 
cation between  that  point  and  Santa  Fe,  their  two  north- 
eastern outposts,  both  of  which  were  subject  to  Indian  danger 
and  to  pressure  from  the  French  in  Louisiana  until  1762. 

Finally  in  1787  the  trail  from  San  Antonio  north  to  the 
region  of  Wichita  Falls,  then  up  the  Red  and  Canadian 
rivers,  and  on  to  Santa  Fe,  was  traced  by  Pierre  Vial 
(pyer  ve-al'),  called  Pedro  Vial  by  the  Spaniards,  a  French 
frontiersman  sent  out  by  the  governor  of .  Texas.  The 
route  was  somewhat  roundabout ;  and  Governor  Anza, 
•wishing  to  use  Vial  for  another  undertaking,  sent  out 


84 


THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW  MEXICO 


another  party  that  same  year  under  Jose  Mares  (ma'ras) 
to  find  a  more  direct  route.  Mares's  outgoing  trip  made 
but  little  improvement  on  the  route  of  Vial;  but  on  the 


PRIMITIVE  MINING 

return  to  Santa  F6  the  following  spring  he  took  a  much 
more  direct  route  across  the  upper  Colorado  and  by  the 
headwaters  of  the  Brazos  to  Santa  Fe. 


THE   CLOSE  OF  THE   SPANISH   ERA  85 

104.  The  Route  to  Louisiana.  —  That  summer   (1788) 
Vial  started  out  from  Santa  Fe  to  find  a  route  to  Natchi- 
toches,  the  great  French  center  on  the  lower  waters  of  the 
Red  River.     He  went  down  the  Red  and  across  the  upper 
Sabine  (sa-ben'),  spent  the  winter,  and  returned  a  year 
later.     A  trade  route  over  this  line  had  been  the  dream  of 
La  Harpe  half  a  century  before  (sec.  94). 

105.  Blazing   the   Santa   Fe   Trail,    1792.  —  Still   there 
was  no  route  to  St.  Louis  in  Spanish  Louisiana ;  and  Pierre 
Vial's  success  in  finding  the  routes  to  San  Antonio  and 
Natchitoches  marked  him  as  the  best  man  for  that  under- 
taking.    He  left  Santa  Fe  with  two  companions,  May  21, 
1792,   under  orders  from   the  governor   to  find   a  direct 
route  to  St.  Louis.     Going  through  Apache  Canyon,  Pecos, 
and  the  Las  Vegas  (las  va'gas)  country,  he  seems  to  have 
crossed  the  northeastern  plains  close  to  the  route  of  the 
later  famous   Cimarron   Cut-Off  of   the  Santa  Fe    Trail 
(sec.  128)  to  the  Arkansas  River  near  modern  Dodge  City. 
He  followed  the  Arkansas  to  Great  Bend  and  then  went 
northeast  to  the  Kansas  and  the  Missouri  and  down  to 
St.  Louis,  October  6. 

He  had  experienced  so  many  difficulties  in  getting  through 
the  Indian  country  that  the  journey  had  taken  him  all 
summer,  and  he  had  to  wait  until  the  following  spring 
before  he  could  return  to  Santa  Fe.  But  he  had  traced 
much  of  the  route  of  the  later  Santa  Fe  Trail,  the  most 
famous  highway  in  southwestern  history.  Regular  trade 
in  that  direction,  however,  did  not  begin  until  after  the 
close  of  the  Spanish  era. 

106.  New  Interest  in  Mining.  —  Early  discovery  of  the 
fact  that  New  Mexico  was  not  a  rich  and  easy  mining 
region  (sec.  64)  caused  the  principal  energies  of  the  colony 


86  THE   HISTORY   OF   NEW   MEXICO 

to  be  spent  in  other  directions.  But  in  the  wave  of  ex- 
pansion that  characterized  the  last  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  the  mineral  prospects  of  the  country  began  to 
receive  new  attention.  In  1765  Governor  Cachupin  sent 
Juan  Maria  Rivera  (re-va'ra)  with  an  exploring  and  pros- 
pecting party  across  the  San  Juan  Basin  and  on  up  through 
the  Gunnison  and  Uncompahgre  (oon-kom-pa'gra)  regions 
in  western  Colorado  in  search  of  precious  metals.  Before 


OLD  SPANISH  FORT  AT  THE  SANTA  RITA  COPPER  MINK 

the  close  of  the  century  adventurous  New  Mexicans  had 
prospected  and  tramped  over  much  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain region  as  far  north  as  southern  Wyoming. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  decaying  condition  of  the 
Spanish  monarchy  at  home,  this  was  a  period  of  boundless 
energy  on  the  northern  frontier  of  New  Spain.  The  New 
Mexicans  were  carrying  out,  on  their  own  initiative,  an  am- 
bitious program  of  expansion  and  development. 

Yet  there  was  little  actual  mining  during  the  Spanish 
era.  The  Santa  Rita  copper  mine,  discovered  about  1800, 
was  not  extensively  worked  until  1804.  It  was  owned  by  a 
Chihuahua  operator,  and  the  ore  was  transported  to  Mexico 
City  on  pack  mules.  Lieutenant  Pike  in  1807  (sees,  m- 
112)  said  it  was  producing  "  twenty  thousand  mule  loads 


THE   CLOSE  OF  THE   SPANISH   ERA  87 

of  copper  annually."     Mica  was  also  mined  near  Santa  Fe 
and  Mora. 

107.  Intrusions  of  the  English.  —  When  Spain  acquired 
French  Louisiana  to  the  Mississippi  in  1762,  it  looked  as 
if  her  northeastern  frontier  problem  had  been  solved ;  for 
the  French  were  the  only  foreigners  who  had  been  coming 
into  that  region  seeking  trade.     But  a  new  peril  was  about 
to  appear.     A  few  months  later  (1763)  England  acquired 
all  of  Louisiana  east  of  the  Mississippi  and  became  Spain's 
next-door  neighbor  —  a  much  stronger  and  more  vigorous 
one  than  France.     Though  most  of  her  American  colonists 
still  lived  en  the  Atlantic  slope,  they  were  soon  to  be  pouring 
through   the  passes  of   the  Appalachian  Mountains   and 
swarming  down  the  valleys  of  the  Tennessee,  the  Cumber- 
land, and  the  Ohio,  to  look  out  across  the  Father  of  Waters 
for  still  wider  lands. 

By  1775  English  frontiersmen  were  trading  with  the 
Indians  on  the  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  Red  rivers.  That 
they  were  securing  much  influence  over  the  Indians  in 
those  regions  was  a  fact  which  could  not  fail  to  give  the 
Spaniards  some  uneasiness.  Then  the  American  Revolu- 
tion brought  the  boundary  of  the  American  Union  to  the 
banks  of  the  Mississippi  and  gave  a  great  impetus  to  the 
westward  movement  of  those  restless,  pushing  Anglo- 
American  pioneers.  Texas  and  New  Mexico  lay  in  their 
pathway.  Panic  seized  the  Spanish  officials  lest  these 
northern  provinces  should  be  entirely  overrun. 

108.  The  Case  of  Daniel  Boone.  —  In  the  nineties  Daniel 
Boone  lost  his  lands  in  Kentucky  and  moved  across  into 
Spanish  territory  on  the  Missouri  River  west  of  St.  Louis. 
His  son,  Daniel  Boone,  Jr.,  was  already  there,  and  others 
of  his  married  children  soon  followed.     By  1800,  before 


88 


THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 


the  Louisiana  Purchase,  there  was  a  considerable  American 
settlement  in  that  region.  Boonville,  North  Carolina; 
Boonesboro,  Kentucky;  and  Booneville,  Missouri,  mark 
stages  in  the  life  of  that  restless  old  pioneer.  Others  of 


OUI5 


FIRST  QUARTER 

OF  THE 

NINETEENTH  CENTURY 


the  same  sturdy  stock,  filled  with  the  pioneering  spirit  of 
the  young  American  West,  were  moving  this  way.  Their 
faces  were  turned  toward  New  Mexico.  There  was  cause 
for  uneasiness. 


THE   CLOSE   OF  THE   SPANISH  ERA  89 

109.  The  Louisiana  Purchase.  —  Suddenly,  in  1803,  the 
whole  frontier  problem  was  again  radically  changed  when 
the  United  States  purchased  Louisiana.     Spain  had  given 
it  back  to  France  in  1800 ;  but  that  was  hardly  known  in 
New  Mexico  until  it  had  already  passed  into  the  possession 
of  the  United  States. 

The  boundary  between  French  Louisiana  and  the  Spanish 
provinces  had  never  been  determined.  Now  Spain  claimed 
all  the  territory  to  the  Arkansas  or  even  the  Missouri ;  and 
the  United  States  regarded  Louisiana  as  extending  to  the 
Red  River  or  probably  to  the  Rio  Grande.  While  each 
of  these  extreme  claims  had  very  slight  foundation,  the 
long  strip  of  country  between  the  Red  River  and  the  Ar- 
kansas was  a  genuinely  debatable  ground.  New  Mexico 
had  the  better  claim  to  the  western  portion  of  it,  and 
Louisiana  the  better  claim  to  the  eastern  portion.  These 
facts  were  recognized  by  the  treaty  of  1819.  In  the  mean- 
time, however,  the  whole  region  was  in  dispute. 

110.  Lieutenant  Melgares  Goes  to  the  Eastern  Plains.  — 
Spanish  officials,  thoroughly  aroused  .by  the  westward  ex- 
pansion of  the  United  States,  now  sent  a  great  military 
expedition  under  Lieutenant  Facundo  Melgares  (fa-koon'do 
mSl-ga/ras)  to  the  eastern  plains  in  the  summer  of  1806  to 
check  the  American  movement  in  this  direction.     With  a 
hundred  cavalry  from  Chihuahua  and  five  hundred  New 
Mexico  mounted  militiamen  he  went  down  the  Canadian 
Rvier,   then  turned   north  across   the  Arkansas   into  the 
Pawnee  country  with  orders  to  capture  any  Americans  he 
might  find.     He  also  had  orders  to  explore  the  frontier  of 
New  Mexico  as  far  as  the  Missouri  and  Platte  rivers  and  to 
make  treaties  with  the  Indians.     After  a  council  with  the 
head  men  of  the  Pawnees  he  returned  to  Santa  Fe. 


THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 


111.  Pike's  Expedition  to  New  Mexico.  —  A  few  weeks 
after  Melgares  left  the  Pawnee  villages  a  little  band  of 
twenty-two  American  infantry,  under  Lieutenant  Zebulon 
M.  Pike,  trudged  in  from  the  east  and  claimed  the  alle- 
giance of  the  Pawnees  for  their  government. 

Pike  had  started  out  from  St.  Louis  in  July,  1806,  to 
explore  the  southwestern  portion  of  Louisiana  and  establish 

friendly  relations  with 
Indians  on  the  frontier. 
He  went  on  across  the 

JH         '  plains  to  the  Arkansas  in 

£-£;  western  Kansas  and  up 

to  the  "  Mexican  Moun- 
tains "  in  the  region 
of  Pueblo,  Colorado. 
Though  Pike  discovered 
Pike's  Peak,  he  declared 
that  "  no  human  being 
could  have  ascended  to 
its  pinnacle." 

From  the  region  of  Pue- 
blo, Colorado,  he  crossed 
the  Sangre  de  Cristo 
Mountains  to  the  San  Luis  Valley  and  built  a  cottonwood 
stockade  about  five  miles  up  the  Rio  Conejos  (ko-na'hos) 
on  the  west  side  of  the  Rio  Grande  in  February,  1807.  From 
this  point  he  sent  a  few  of  his  men  back  to  bring  in  two 
who  had  been  left  in  the  mountains  because  their  feet  were 
so  frostbitten  that  they  could  not  travel.  At  the  same 
time  a  Dr.  John  H.  Robinson,  of  St.  Louis,  who  had  accom- 
panied the  party,  went  to  Santa  Fe  to  collect  a  debt  and 
secure  information  about  the  country. 


LIEUTENANT  ZEBULON  M.  PTKE 


THE   CLOSE   OF  THE   SPANISH   ERA  91 

112.  The  Americans  in  Santa  Fe.  —  Pike  had  built  his 
fort  and  raised  the  United  States  flag  on  Spanish  territory ; 
and  as  soon  as  the  news  reached  Governor  Joaquin  Alen- 
castre  (hwa-ken'  a-lan-kas'tra)  he  sent  out  a  party  of  horse- 
men to  bring  the  Americans  to  Santa  Fe.     Leaving  a  few 
horses  at  the  fort  to  bring  in  those  who  were  still  in  the 
mountains,  the  party  went  over  the  hills  by  Ojo  Caliente 
fo'ho  ka-lyan'ta)  and  San  Juan  to  the  capital,  March  2,  1807. 

"  I  was  dressed,"  says  Pike,  "  in  a  pair  of  blue  trousers, 
mockinsons,  blanket  coat,  and  a  cap  made  of  scarlet  cloth 
lined  with  fox-skin ;  my  poor  fellows  were  in  leggins, 
breechcloths,  and  leather  coats,  and  there  was  not  a  hat  in 
the  whole  party."  The  people  of  the  town  asked  whether 
they  lived  in  houses,  or  in  camps  like  the  Indians,  and 
whether  people  wore  hats  in  their  country ! 

Then  Pike  and  Alencastre  matched  wits  over  the  situa- 
tion, Pike  protesting  that  he  had  merely  lost  his  way  while 
searching  for  the  Red  River,  and  Alencastre  answering 
that  even  if  the  Lieutenant  had  mistaken  the  Rio  Grande 
for  the  Red  River,  he  had  deliberately  built  his  fort  and 
raised  the  American  flag  on  the  west,  or  Spanish,  side  of  it. 
And  why  was  Dr.  Robinson,  a  man  with  business  in  Santa 
Fe,  in  his  party  if  he  had  not  intended  to  stray  into  Spanish 
territory  ?  It  did  look  as  if  Pike  had  fallen  into  a  trap  of 
his  own  setting. 

The  Governor,  therefore,  sent  him  on  to  Chihuahua  to 
report  to  the  commanding  general  of  the  Interior  Provinces. 
There  he  was  relieved  of  his  most  important  papers  and 
sent  under  escort  across  Coahuila  and  Texas  to  Natchi- 
toches  on  the  Louisiana  frontier,  July  i,  1807. 

113.  The  First  Americans  in  Santa  Fe.  —  But  Pike  and 
his  party  were  not  the  first  Americans  in  Santa  Fe.     At 


92  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

least  two  adventurers  were  ahead  of  them.  The  first  was 
Baptiste  la  Lande  (ba-test'  la  land'),  a  French  creole 
trader  from  Illinois,  sent  out  in  the  spring  of  1804  by 
William  Morrison,  of  Kaskaskia,  to  try  the  Santa  Fe 
market  and  report  on  commercial  prospects  in  that  region. 
He  reached  Santa  Fe  that  fall  and  found  a  ready  market  for 
his  goods  and  so  many  inducements  to  stay  that  he  settled 
down  in  the  capital,  married  a  Spanish  woman,  and  did  not 
take  the  trouble  to  pay  Morrison  for  the  goods.  This 
debt  was  the  excuse  for  Dr.  Robinson's  coming  with  Pike 
in  1807  (sees.  111-112). 

The  next  American  in  Santa  Fe  was  James  Purcell,  of 
Kentucky,  a  typical  plainsman,  who  had  been  trapping  on 
the  Missouri,  Platte,  and  Arkansas  for  three  years,  and 
finally  drifted  into  Santa  Fe  in  the  summer  of  1805.  He, 
too,  settled  there  and  worked  as  a  carpenter  until  1824, 
when  he  returned  to  Missouri. 

114.  Efforts  at  Trade  from  the  East.  —  The  report  of 
Lieutenant  Pike  gave  the  people  of  the  United  States  their 
first  authentic  information  about  the  Spanish  Southwest. 
The  Westerners  were  open-eyed  with  wonder  as  they  lis- 
tened to  his  report  of  prices  in  Santa  Fe.  Linen  was  $4.00 
a  yard;  fine  cloths,  $20.00  to  $25.00;  "  and  all  other  dry- 
goods  in  proportion  "  —  in  a  country  where  horses  could 
be  bought  at  $11.00  and  sheep  at  $1.00  each. 

In  1809  four  traders  started  out  from  St.  Louis  to  Santa 
Fe,  but  were  never  again  heard  from.  Another  party, 
under  the  leadership  of  Robert  McKnight,  James  Baird, 
and  Samuel  Chambers,  came  across  the  plains  to  Santa  Fe, 
only  to  have  their  goods  confiscated  and  to  be  themselves 
sent  to  prison  in  Chihuahua.  Then  in  midwinter  1815- 
1816  Auguste  P.  Chouteau  (o-goost'  shoo-to')  and  Julius 


THE   CLOSE  OF  THE  SPANISH  ERA  93 

de  Munn  (de  mun),  St.  Louis  traders  among  the  Indians 
on  the  upper  Arkansas,  came  down  and  traded  at  Taos 
and  Santa  Fe.  Later  they  were  driven  out.  Finally  in 
1819  David  Merriwether,  a  Kentuckian  in  the  employ  of 
the  American  Fur  Company,  came  in  from  St.  Louis,  only 
to  be  lodged  in  the  old  military  prison  at  Santa  Fe.  New 
Mexico  was  still  a  forbidden  land. 

115.  Agriculture  and  Stock  Raising.  —  Agriculture  and 
stock  raising  were  then  as  now  New  Mexico's  principal 
industries.     In  the  valleys  where  there  was  flowing  water 
for  irrigation  corn,  wheat,  beans,  pumpkins,  squashes,  and 
other  vegetables  were  grown  in  abundance.     Some  fruit, 
cotton,   and  punche    (poon'cha),   a  native   tobacco,   were 
grown  in  certain  sections. 

Mules,  burros,  cattle,  and  sheep  were  raised  in  great 
numbers.  Horses  were  not  so  numerous.  Thousands  of 
sheep  were  driven  to  El  Paso  and  other  southern  points 
every  year.  They  were  worth  $1.00  each;  cattle,  $5.00; 
horses,  $11.00;  mules,  $30.00.  The  burro  was  the  favorite 
pack  animal  in  the  colony,  and  the  mule  was  the  commercial 
pack  animal  in  the  overland  freighting  business  to  El  Paso, 
Chihuahua,  and  elsewhere. 

116.  Trades  and  Industries.  —  Manufacturing  industries 
were  in   a  very  primitive   condition.     Agriculture,   stock 
raising,  trading,  fighting  Indians,  and  exploring  the  frontiers 
absorbed  most  of  the  energy  of  the  colonists.     The  Indians 
practiced    their    native    handicrafts    and    those    that    the 
missionaries  had  taught  them.     Cotton  cloth,  coarse  woolen 
blankets,  prepared  skins  of  animals,   rough  leather,  and 
pottery  were  the  chief  products.     Other  manufactured  ar- 
ticles were  imported  from  Spain  through  the  one  seaport 
of  Vera  Cruz  and  then  brought  by  pack  train  for  two 


94 


THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 


thousand  miles  through  Mexico  City,  Durango,  and  Chi- 
huahua.    The  cost  of  such  goods  was  enormous. 

117.  The  Taos  Fairs.  —  The  royal  order  of  1723  (sec.  96), 
prohibiting  trade  with  the  French  and  limiting  trade  with 
the  plains  Indians  to  those  who  came  to  Taos  and  Pecos, 
brought  into  existence  regular  annual  fairs  at  Taos.  These 
fairs  were  rapidly  developed  by  the  new  policy  of  seeking 


THE  NORTH  PUEBLO  OF  TAOS  TO-DAY 

the  friendship  and  trade  of  the  plains  Indians  after  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  (sec.  98).  Taos  was  the 
extreme  northern  outpost  of  Spanish  settlement.  For  the 
plains  Indians  in  all  directions  it  was  the  nearest  source 
of  supplies  of  manufactured  articles.  The  Comanches  and 
other  tribes  came  in  from  the  plains  bringing  deer  skins, 
buffalo  robes,  furs,  buffalo  meat,  and  captives,  to  exchange 
with  the  Spaniards  and  Pueblos  for  knives,  bridles,  trink- 


THE  CLOSE  OF  THE   SPANISH   ERA  95 

ets,  horses,  blankets,  and  even  fire  arms  if  they  could  get 
them.  It  was  a  motley  array  that  gathered  there  each 
summer.  Taos  became  the  busiest  and  most  turbulent 
town  in  the  province.  Its  population  grew  rapidly  from 
160  in  1760  to  1,351  in  1799. 

Money  was  hardly  known  among  these  people  until 
about  1800,  and  old-time  barter  had  ceased  to  meet  the 
varied  needs  of  this  growing  trade.  So  the  professional 
traders  invented  a  system  of  imaginary  money  having 
four  kinds  of  dollars,  worth  from  twelve  and  a  half  cents 
to  a  dollar  each.  Then  they  bought  for  the  cheap  dollars 
and  sold  for  the  dear  ones.  Every  manufactured  article 
brought  in  was  exorbitant  in  price. 

118.  The  Caravan  to  El  Paso  and  Chihuahua.  —  Later 
in  the  fall  the  traders  fitted  out  their  caravan  of  pack  mules 
and  carts  and  started  southward.  At  El  Paso  del  Norte 
they  stopped  and  traded  for  a  while  in  the  early  winter 
and  then  moved  on  to  Chihuahua  for  the  great  January 
fair.  There  they  exchanged  their  raw  materials  and  what 
little  specie  they  had  for  cargoes  of  manufactured  articles, 
groceries,  drugs,  knives,  firearms,  steel  traps,  trinkets  for 
the  Indians,  and  other  light  imported  commodities  for  the 
northern  trade  the  following  summer. 

By  1788  this  trade  to  Chihuahua  amounted  to  $30,000 
a  year.  Fifteen  years  later  imports  from  the  south 
amounted  to  $112,000  a  year.  Exports  of  wool,  wine, 
peltries,  etc.,  worth  $60,000,  besides  large  flocks  of  sheep 
and  hundreds  of  horses,  went  to  the  same  regions. 

The  commercial  policy  of  Spain  toward  her  American 
colonies  was  selfish  and  ruinous.  All  trade  between  New 
Mexico  and  foreigners  or  the  other  Spanish  colonies  was 
strictly  forbidden,  except  through  the  one  channel  to  the 


96 


THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 


south,  and  even  that  was  taxed.  The  two  centuries  and 
a  quarter  of  Spanish  rule  came  to  an  end  in  1821  without 
the  establishment  of  any  regular  trade  between  Santa  Fe 
and  California,  Texas,  or  the  United  States. 


r-  •-; 

ELPAJO  DEL  NOffTE       •''l 

sS  PA  N  1  5  H 

sS  ETTLEMENT5 
1760 

119.  Population.  —  In  1799  the  Spanish  population 
numbered  about  18,000  in  New  Mexico  proper  with  nearly 
5,000  more  in  the  El  Paso  district.  By  the  close  of  the 


TEE  CLOSE  OF  THE  SPANISH  ERA  97 

Spanish  era  (1821)  it  had  grown  to  28,500  with  more  than 
8,000  around  El  Paso.  Santa  Fe,  the  largest  town,  had 
6,000  people  ;  Albuquerque,  2,500 ;  La  Canada,  2,600.  The 
Pueblos  in  their  twenty-six  villages  now  numbered  but 
9,000. 

120.  Education.  —  All  through  the  eighteenth  century 
education  remained  in  a  very  backward  condition.     There 
were  no  scholars  in  the  colony  except  the  few  who  came 
from  abroad.     Even  their  education,  emphasizing  religion 
and  ancient  languages,  and  totally  lacking  in  modern  history 
and  geography,  was  somewhat  one-sided.     There  were  no 
colleges  or  public  schools  and  only  a  few  private  teachers 
in  the  larger  towns  at  the  close  of  the  Spanish  era.     There 
was  not  a  lawyer  or  notary  public.     The  army  surgeon  at 
Santa  Fe  was  the  only  doctor. 

121.  Government.  —  The  province  was  under  the  ab- 
solute authority  of  the  Spanish  king  and  his  viceroy  at 
Mexico    City.     The    appointed    governors   who    ruled    at 
Santa  Fe  controlled  all  civil,  military,  legislative,  executive, 
and  judicial  affairs.     From  their  decrees  in  civil  and  crim- 
inal matters  there  was  no  appeal  except  to  the  Audiencia 
(or  high   court)   of   Guadalajara   thirteen   hundred   miles 
away.     There  were  no  courts  in  New  Mexico.     The  gover- 
nor's five-year  term  might  be  cut  short  whenever  the  king 
desired.     His  salary  early  in  the  eighteenth  century  was 
$2,000  a  year.     By  1800  it  was  $4,000.     His  lieutenant 
governor  at  El  Paso  received  $2,000. 

For  local  government  the  colony  was  divided  into  dis- 
tricts each  under  an  alcalde  (al-kal'da)  appointed  by  the 
governor  and  serving  without  salary.  There  were  no 
popular  common  councils  even  in  Santa  Fe  and  the  larger 
towns.  Nowhere,  in  fact,  was  there  any  semblance  of 


98  THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

popular  government  except  in  the  Pueblo  villages  where 
the  Indians  annually  elected  their  alcaldes. 

Once  only  was  New  Mexico  represented  in  the  Spanish 
Cortes  (kor'tas),  or  legislature.  Even  then  (1810),  when 
Spain  had  been  overrun  by  Napoleon's  armies  and  the 
Spanish  government  was  looking  to  its  American  colonies 
for  support,  the  Delegate  from  New  Mexico,  Pedro  Bau- 
tista  Pino  (pe'no),  was  selected  by  the  governor  and  ten 
other  officials  of  the  province.  And  so  little  did  he  accom- 
plish that  an  enterprising  wag  wrote  :  Don  Pedro  Pino  fue; 
Don  Pedro  Pino  vino  (Don  Pedro  Pino  went  away ;  Don 
Pedro  Pino  came  back). 

The  Veteran  Company  at  Santa  Fe  in  1822  numbered  a 
hundred  and  twenty-one  regulars.  Thirty-nine  were  cav- 
alry on  the  move  to  various  parts  of  the  province.  Thir- 
teen were  capital  guards.  The  others  were  stationed  in 
regions  particularly  exposed  to  Indian  attacks. 

122.  The  Overthrow  of  Spanish  Power.  —  The  selfish 
rule  of  the  Spanish  kings  had  ruined  the  Spanish  colonies 
in  America  and  alienated  their  people.  Naturally,  there- 
fore, when  Napoleon  overthrew  the  Spanish  government 
and  set  his  brother  Joseph  to  rule -over  Spain  (1808),  the 
colonists  seized  the  opportunity  to  start  a  revolution. 
Hidalgo  (e-thal'go),  the  patriot  priest  at  Dolores  (do-lo'ras), 
started  the  movement  in  Mexico  in  1810.  The  next  year 
he  was  executed;  but  the  old  order  could  never  be  fully 
restored.  Finally  on  September  28,  1821,  Mexico  declared 
her  independence  and  succeeded  in  establishing  it.  Far- 
away New  Mexico  knew  little  of  what  was  going  on  around 
Mexico  City  and  felt  none  of  the  excitement  of  those  stirring 
events ;  yet  when  the  news  reached  Santa  Fe,  December  26, 
1821,  the  capital  celebrated  the  event  with  great  enthusiasm. 


THE  CLOSE  OF  THE   SPANISH  ERA  99 

GENERAL  READINGS 

H.  H.  BANCROFT,  History  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  255-309. 

L.  B.  PRINCE,  A  Concise  History  of  New  Mexico,  127-147. 

B.  M.  READ,  Illustrated  History  of  New  Mexico,  334-360. 

R.  E.  TWITCHELL,  The  Leading  Facts  of  New  Mexican  History,  I,  445- 

483. 

J.  H.  VAUGHAN,  History  of  Education  in  New  Mexico,  Chapter  III. 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

1.  EXPLORATION  OF  NEW  ROUTES.     H.  E.  Bolton,  Texas  in  the  Middle 
Eighteenth  Century,  127-133;  L.  Houck,  The  Spanish  Regime  in   Missouri, 
I,  350-358,  contains  a  translation  of  Vial's  diary  of  his  journey  from  Santa 
F6  to  St.  Louis. 

2.  THE  NEW  INDIAN  PROBLEM  AND  THE  LOUISIANA   FRONTIER.    J.  A. 
Robertson  (ed.~),  Louisiana  under  Spain,  France,  and    the  United    States, 
1785-1807.     2  vols.  (Documents);  H.  E.  Bolton  (ed.),  Athanase de  Mezieres 
and  the  Louisiana-Texas  Frontier,  1768-1780.     2  vols.    Especially  I,  66-122. 

3.  THE  LOUISIANA  BOUNDARY.    T.  M.  Marshall,  A  History  of  the  West- 
ern Boundary  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  1810-1841,  1-70. 

4.  COLONIAL  COMMERCE  AND  INDUSTRY.    H.  E.  Bourne,  Spain  in  Amer- 
ica ("American  Nation"  Series,  III),  282-301. 

5.  SPANISH  COLONIAL  GOVERNMENT.     H.  E.  Bourne,  Same  as  above, 
220-242 ;  D.  E.  Smith,  "The  Viceroy  of  New  Spain,"  in  University  of  Cali- 
fornia Publications  in  History,  I,  98-293  ;  H.  I.  Priestly,  "The   Reforms  of 
Joseph  Galvez  in  New  Spain,"  in  The  Pacific  Ocean  in  History,   349-362; 
R.  E.  Twitchell,  "Spanish  Colonization  in  New  Mexico  in  the  Onate  and 
De  Vargas  Periods,"  Historical  Society  of  New  Mexico  Publication  No.  22. 

6.  SOCIAL  AND  RACIAL  CONDITIONS  IN  SPANISH  AMERICA.     H.  E.  Bourne, 
Same  as  above,  253-268,  302-319. 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  What  was  the  general   Indian    situation   toward   the  close   of  the 
eighteenth  century?     What  tribes  were  most  troublesome? 

2.  For  what  purposes  were  the  Interior  Provinces  organized?  What 
region  was  included?     What  was  the  Audiencia? 

3.  Give  an  account  of  the  first  attempt  to  go  from  New  Mexico  to  Cali- 
fornia.    Of  Governor  Anza's  effort  to  find  a  route  to  Sonora.     Locate  the 
San  Pedro  River,  the  Gila,  Santa  Cruz,  Janos. 

4.  Draw  a  map  showing  the  routes  traveled  by  Vial  and  Mares  between 
Santa  Fe  and  San  Antonio ;  by  Vial  to  Natchitoches.     What  famous  high- 
way later  followed  his  route  to  St.  Louis? 

5.  Why  was  there  but  little  mining  in  Spanish  times?     In  what  regions 
were  prospecting  and  operations  carried  on  during  this  period? 


100  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

6.  How  did  the  English  come  to  be  New  Mexico's  eastern  neighbors? 
What  brought  the  English  frontiersmen  into  the  West?     What  effect  did 
the  American  Revolution  have  on  this  movement? 

7.  How  did  the  Louisiana  Purchase  change  the  situation?     Discuss  the 
western  boundary  of  Louisiana.     Point  out  the  debatable  region. 

8.  What  was  the  object  of  Melgares's  expedition  to  the  east  in  1806? 
Of  Pike's  expedition?     Why  was  Dr.  Robinson  with  Pike? 

9.  Draw  a  map  showing  Pike's  route  from  St.  Louis  to  Natchitoches. 
What  was  the  effect  of  his  report? 

10.  Who  were  the  first  Americans  in  Santa  F6?     How  did  they  come  to 
be  there? 

11.  Give  an  account  of  the  first  efforts  of  the  Americans  to  open  trade 
with  Santa  Fe\     Why  did  they  fail? 

12.  What  were  the  chief  industries  in  the  colony?     What  trades  were 
carried  on?     Where  did  other  manufactured  goods  come  from?     What  was 
the  chief  means  of  transportation?     Why  was  the  price  of  live  stock  so 
low  and  that  of  manufactured  goods  so  high? 

13.  Give  an  account  of  the  Taos  fairs.     What  were  the  chief  articles  of 
trade?     Who  brought  them? 

14.  What  did  the  annual  caravan  to  Chihuahua  carry  each  way? 

15.  How  much  did  population  increase  from  1760  to  1821?     See  sees. 
91,  119. 

16.  Give  an  account  of  educational  conditions  at  the  close  of  the  Spanish 
period. 

17.  How  was  the  province  governed?    What  powers  did  the  governor 
have?    What  kind  of  local  government  was  there?    Was  the  government 
representative? 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE   MEXICAN   PERIOD,    1822-1846 

123.  The  Change  of  Government.  —  In  the  beginning 
of  the  year  1822  the  new  government  under  the  Mexican 
Republic  went  quietly  into  effect.     When  Facundo   Mel- 
gares,  the  last  Spanish  governor,  turned  his  office  over  to 
Francisco    Xavier    Chaves    (ha-vyer'    cha'vas),    the    first 
Mexican  Political  Chief,  on  July  5,  the  change  was  com- 
plete.    The   stormy   Mexican  period   was   to   last   but  a 
scant  twenty-five  years. 

124.  Beginnings  of  the  Santa  Fe  Trade.  —  From  the 
purchase  of  Louisiana  to  the  end  of  the  Spanish  era  all 
efforts  of  the  American  West  to  trade  with  Santa  Fe  ended 
in  failure   (sec.    114).     The   hostility  of   Spanish   officials 
could  not  be  overcome.     Now  the  situation  was  changed. 
Mexico  was  an  independent  republic  ready  to  establish 
new  relations  with  the  outside  world. 

William  Becknell,  of  Missouri,  a  trader  among  the 
Comanches,  who  came  down  to  Taos  and  Santa  Fe  in  the 
fall  of  1821  and  returned  to  Missouri  that  winter,  was  the 
first  American  to  take  advantage  of  the  change.  The 
following  spring  (1822)  he  organized  a  party  of  twenty-one 
men  and  left  the  Missouri  frontier  with  a  pack  train  and 
three  wagons,  bringing  $5,000  worth  of  goods  across  the 
plains  toward  Santa  Fe.  This  was  the  first  regular  trading 
caravan  to  use  wagons  for  transportation  of  goods  across 
the  plains,  and  also  the  first  to  follow  the  Cimarron  route 

10 1 


IO2 


THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 


to  San  Miguel  and  Santa  Fe  instead  of  continuing  up  the 
Arkansas  and  coming  in  by  way  of  Taos.  William  Beck- 
nell,  its  organizer  and  manager,  has,  therefore,  been  called 
the  Father  of  the  Santa  Fe  Trade. 


A  PATHFINDER  OF  CIVILIZATION 

Two  years  later  the  spring  caravan  of  twenty-five  wagons 
brought  out  $30,000  worth  of  goods  and  took  back  $180,000 
in  gold  and  silver  and  $10,000  worth  of  furs.  These  were 
the  big  days  of  the  trade  when  calico  and  cotton  cloth 
brought  from  two  dollars  to  three  dollars  a  yard  in  Santa 


THE   MEXICAN  PERIOD 


I03 


Fe,  and  the  yard,  or  vara  (va'ra),  was  only  thirty- three 
inches  long.     The  Santa  Fe  trade  was  established. 

125.  The  Fur  Trade.  —  Where  did  this  $10,000  worth 
of  furs  come  from?     The  New  Mexicans  were  not  great 
trappers.     This  brings  us  to  another  phase  of  early  Ameri- 
can enterprise  in  New  Mexico  —  one  that  has  been  almost 
forgotten.     For  many  years  American  and  French  frontiers- 
men had  been  trapping  beaver 

on  the  streams  from  Colorado  to 
northern  Sonora.  The  official 
license  was  always  difficult  and 
sometimes  impossible  to  get; 
but  that  detail  was  frequently 
disregarded.  James  O.  Pattie, 
a  Kentuckian,  with  a  party  of 
western  frontiersmen,  trapped 
all  over  New  Mexico  and  Ari- 
zona from  1824  to  1828.  In 
1826  Ceran  St.  Vrain  (sa-ran' 
sant  vran)  brought  out  a  hun-  ci:RAN  ST'  VRAIN 

dred  trappers  to  catch  beaver  on  the  Rio  Grande,  the  Gila, 
and  the  Colorado. 

The  importance  of  the  fur  trade  in  southwestern  history 
during  the  first  third  of  the  last  century  has  not  been 
sufficiently  appreciated  because  the  romance  of  the  over- 
land trade  to  the  Missouri  River  has  overshadowed  the 
quieter  and  less  conspicuous  activity  of  the  trappers,  who 
spent  their  time  on  the  streams  in  remote  regions  and 
appeared  in  the  settlements  for  but  short  periods  in  the 
course  of  a  year.  Like  the  trader,  however,  but  ahead  of 
him,  they  were  the  pathfinders  of  civilization. 

126.  Popularity  of  the  American  Trade.  —  The  Santa 


104  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

Fe  trade  with  the  United  States  was  popular  with  both  the 
officials  and  the  common  people.  The  old  route  to  Vera 
Cruz  was  more  than  two  thousand  miles  long.  The  new 
trail  to  the  Missouri  River  was  less  than  eight  hundred. 
Better  goods  could  be  got  from  the  Americans  at  a  lower 
price,  and  the  New  Mexicans  were  determined  to  have  them. 

The  officials  of  the  Territory  had  still  other  reasons  for 
fostering  the  trade.  Their  salaries,  to  be  paid  from  the 
empty  treasury  of  the  new  and  unsteady  Mexican  Republic, 
gave  little  more  than  an  unlimited  right  of  expectation; 
and  the  Territory  had  no  regular  revenues  of  its  own. 
Tariff  duties  on  goods  coming  from  the  United  States  would 
help  to  solve  this  problem.  In  the  early  years  of  the  trade 
these  duties  amounted  to  about  fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent 
of  the  American  value  of  the  goods.  By  1830  they  had 
been  raised  to  about  sixty  per  cent.  And  there  was  an 
export  duty  on  the  silver  going  to  the  United  States. 

Moreover,  the  same  spirit  of  adventure  and  love  of  gain 
that  prompted  the  pioneers  of  the  American  West  to  open 
up  this  "  commerce  of  the  prairies  "  quickly  led  many 
enterprising  New  Mexicans  to  engage  in  the  trade.  In 
1824  Governor  Bartholome  Baca  was  actively  engaged 
in  the  overland  trade  and  making  plans  to  secure  the 
cooperation  of  the  United  States  government  in  giving 
military  protection  to  the  caravans  through  the  Indian 
country.  Truly,  times  had  changed. 

127.  Goods  and  Profits.  —  In  this  trade  from  the  United 
States  the  chief  articles  were  calico  and  domestic  cotton 
cloths,  with  much  smaller  amounts  of  silks,  velvets,  and 
numerous  other  articles.  Not  all  of  them,  however,  were 
consumed  in  New  Mexico.  Much  of  each  season's  impor- 
tations, sometimes  more  than  half,  went  on  in  the  fall 


THE  MEXICAN  PERIOD 


105 


caravan  to  Chihuahua,  or    after    1830   by  pack  train  to 
California. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  trade,  with  calico  at  two  or 
three  dollars  a  yard  and  other  goods  in  proportion,  the 
profits  to  the  successful  trader  were  enormous.  The 
cargo  brought  out  by  one  of  BecknelPs  wagons  in  1822 
(sec.  124)  is  said  to  have  cost  $150  at  Franklin,  Missouri, 
and  to  have  sold  for  $700  in  Santa  Fe.  But  when  the 
number  of  traders  began  to  increase,  those  days  were  soon 


,1 


BENT'S  FORT  ON  THE  ARKANSAS 

From  Hughes,  Doniphan's  Expedition. 

over.  Then  calico  came  down  to  about  seventy  cents 
and  occasionally  dropped  as  low  as  thirty.  Profits  seldom 
went  higher  than  forty  per  cent,  frequently  dropped  as  low 
as  ten,  and  averaged  fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent. 

128.  The  Santa  Fe  Trail.  —  The  early  adventurers  in 
this  direction  started  from  St.  Louis,  Kaskaskia,  Fort 
Smith,  or  wherever  was  most  convenient.  They  usually 
followed  up  the  valley  of  the  Arkansas  to  the  region  of  La 
Junta  and  then  turned  southwest  across  the  mountains 


io6 


THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 


to  Taos  and  Santa  Fe.  But  in  1822  Becknell  brought  the 
first  American  party  over  the  new  route  known  as  the 
Cimarron  Cut-Off,  first  explored  by  Pierre  Vial  in  1792 
(sec.  103),  which  soon  became  the  main  line  of  the  Santa 
Fe  Trail.  For  some  years  Franklin,  Missouri,  was  the 
starting  point.  Then  boats  began  to  land  at  the  new 
town  of  Independence  on  the  river  a  hundred  miles  farther 
west,  and  after  1830  Independence  became  the  chief  out- 
fitting point. 

Another  route  in  regular  use  followed  up  the  Arkansas 
to  Bent's  Fort,  came  through  Raton  Pass,  and  joined  the 


BENT'S  FORT,  A  RESTORATION  UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF  R.  E.  TWITCHELL 

Cimarron  trail  at  the  Mora  River  near  Wagon  Mound. 
Many  traders  came  up  the  Arkansas  and  Canadian  from 
Fort  Smith.  The  warmer  Canadian  route  had  grass  for 
the  stock  of  the  returning  caravans  later  in  the  fall. 

129.  The  Overland  Journey.  —  From  Independence 
west  to  Council  Grove  the  Trail  lay  through  well-watered 
prairie,  then  over  arid  plains  to  the  ford  of  the  Arkansas 
below  modern  Dodge  City,  across  the  Cimarron  desert  to 
the  Cimarron  River,  thence  by  the  Wagon  Mound  to  the 


THE    MEXICAN   PERIOD  107 

first  settlement  at  San  Miguel,  and  through  Pecos  and 
Apache  Canyon  to  Santa  Fe.  Las  Vegas  was  not  settled 
until  1835. 

Here  was  a  journey  that  appealed  to  the  keen,  sturdy 
Scotch-Irish  Westerners,  who  loved  adventure  and  feared 
no  danger.  Half  of  it  was  American  and  half  Mexican, 
with  the  Arkansas  River  as  the  dividing  line.  At  Council 
Grove  the  traders  would  assemble  and  organize  for  pro- 
tection through  the  Indian  country,  where  their  only 
safety  lay  in  numbers.  Then  the  long  train  of  canvas- 
covered  prairie  schooners,  each  drawn  by  six  or  eight  mules 
or  oxen,  moved  out  toward  Santa  Fe  at  the  slow  pace  of 
ten  to  fifteen  miles  a  day.  At  night  the  wagons  were  parked 
in  a  hollow  square  to  make  an  inclosure  for  the  animals 
and  a  fortification  against  Indian  attack.  The  outcoming 
journey  took  from  two  to  three  months ;  the  return  trip 
with  a  lighter  load,  about  a  month  and  a  half.  Freighters 
would  haul  goods  to  Santa  Fe  at  ten  to  twelve  cents  a 
pound. 

130.  Government  Support.  —  The  Santa  Fe  trade, 
America's  first  romantic  adventure  in  foreign  commerce, 
was  the  outgrowth  of  the  individual  initiative  of  the  West 
and  received  but  slight  encouragement  from  Washington 
at  any  time.  Governor  Baca's  proposal  (sec.  126)  for 
joint  protection  brought  small  results.  Though  United 
States  Senator  Thomas  H.  Benton,  of  Missouri,  had  got  a 
law  through  Congress  in  1824  providing  for  a  survey  of  the 
Trail,  the  survey  amounted  to  nothing  because  the  traders 
refused  to  follow  its  roundabout  course.  Only  a  few  times, 
as  in  1829  and  1843,  did  the  United  States  furnish  military 
protection  for  the  caravan  to  the  Arkansas.  Each  time  the 
sending  of  an  escort  stirred  up  a  storm  of  protest  in  Congress. 


THE   MEXICAN  PERIOD  109 

Western  pioneer  commerce  made  slight  appeal  to  the  East 
and,  therefore,  received  slight  encouragement  from  the 
government. 

131.  The    Trails    to    California.  —  The    overland  trade 
from  the  east  gave  a  new  stimulus  to  the  desire  for  an 
outlet  to  the  California  coast.     In  1830  Antonio  Jose  Baca 
led  a  party  of  New  Mexicans  west  from  the  Rio  Grande 
in  the  region  of  Las  Palomas  (pa-lo'mas)  by  the  Santa  Rita 
copper  mine  to  the  Gila,  down  to  the  Colorado,  and  across 
into    southern    California.     Over    the    same    trail    Ewing 
Young,  a  Tennesseean,  with  a  party  of  trappers,  went  to 
California  before  the  close  of  the  year.     This  route  soon 
came  into  prominence  as  the  Gila  Trail. 

That  year  (1830)  also  William  Wolf  skill,  a  Kentuckian, 
who  had  been  trapping  in  northern  New  Mexico  since  1822, 
fitted  out  a  party  to  trap  in  California  and  set  out  from 
Taos  late  that  season  or  early  in  the  spring  of  1831.  Fol- 
lowing the  Old  Spanish  Trail  (sec.  101)  northwest  into 
central  Utah,  he  turned  away  across  the  Wahsatch  Moun- 
tains to  the  southwest,  down  the  Virgin  River  almost  to  the 
northwestern  bend  of  the  Colorado,  across  the  Mojave 
(mo-ha'va)  Desert,  and  over  the  Cajon  (ka-hon')  Pass  to 
Los  Angeles.  This  northern  route,  known  as  the  Spanish 
Trail,  soon  became  the  great  highway  of  trade  and  travel 
to  the  Pacific  coast.  Over  it  went  pack  trains  of  New 
Mexican  blankets  and  goods  from  the  United  States  to  be 
exchanged  for  California  mules  and  horses. 

132.  American  Pioneers.  —  With  the  parties  of  traders 
and  trappers  that  came  over  the  Trail  from  the  Missouri 
River  each  year  after  1822  were  a  few  individuals  who,  like 
La  Lande  and  Purcell  (sec.  113),  settled  down  in  New 
Mexico  —  the  beginning  of  the  American  Pioneer  element. 


110  THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

Antonio  Roubidoux  (roo-be-doo'),  later  famous  as  inter- 
preter and  scout,  settled  at  Taos  in  1822.  The  next  year 
Charles  Beaubien  (bo-byan'),  a  French  Canadian,  went  to 
Taos  and  a  few  years  later  married  into  a  prominent  Spanish 
family.  Ceran  St.  Vrain  and  Charles  Bent,  trading  partners, 
early  became  identified  with  New  Mexico  and  went  into 
business  at  Taos  in  1832.  Bent  married  Maria  Ignacia 
Jaramillo  (eg-na'sya  ha-ra-me'yo)  ,  of  Taos,  and  thus  be- 
came brother-in-law  to  Kit  Carson. 

133.   Kit   Carson.  —  But   of   all   American  pioneers   in 
New  Mexico  Kit  (Christopher)  Carson  stands  first.     Born 

-  in  Kentucky  of 
the  dogged  fron- 
tier stock  that 
had  come  down 
from  the  North 
Carolina  and  Vir- 
ginia mountains 
and  conquered 
that  wilderness, 
he  moved  to  Mis- 
souri in  childhood 
and  as  a  lad 
of  seventeen  ran 


Courtesy  of  R.E.TuUchell     & 

THE  GRAVE  OF  KIT  CARSON  AT  TAOS 

to    New   Mexico 

with  St.  Vrain's  caravan  of  traders  and  trappers  in  1826 
(sec.  125).  He  too  went  to  Taos  and  there  soon  married 
Josefa  (ho-sa'fa)  Jaramillo,  a  member  of  a  well-to-do 
Spanish  family  of  Taos.  Born  in  the  wilds  of  the  United 
States,  he  loved  still  more  the  wilder  regions  of  northern 
Mexico.  He  hunted  and  trapped  all  over  the  Rocky 


THE   MEXICAN  PERIOD  III 

Mountains  from  Montana  to  Chihuahua  and  in  the  forties 
piloted  the  western  expeditions  of  John  C.  Fremont. 
Carson,  not  Fremont,  was  the  Great  Pathfinder  —  politi- 
cians and  publicity  agents  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 
And  he  probably  had  a  wider  influence  in  his  time  than  any 
other  man  who  ever  came  into  the  State. 

The  whole  American  pioneer  element  that  actuall) 
settled  down  in  New  Mexico  before  the  American  Occupa- 
tion in  1846  amounted  to  but  a  few  dozen.  Yet  they 
gained  wide  influence  because  of  their  social  and  business 
connections  with  leading  Spanish  families. 

134.  Opposition    to    Foreigners    Reappears.  —  Popular 
government  in  the  Mexican  Republic  was  losing  ground. 
Ambitious  rulers  seeking  despotic  power  felt   jealous   of 
the   influence   of   foreigners,    especially   Americans.     This 
political    attitude    was    gradually    communicated    to    the 
officials  in  New  Mexico.     And  when  those  same  despotic 
tendencies  stirred  Texas  to  revolt  in   1832   and  to  open 
revolution  and  independence  in  1835-1836,  the  American 
residents  of  New  Mexico  were  suspected  of  being  in  some 
way  connected  with  the  Texan  revolt  or  even  planning 
a  like  movement  here.     For  although  there  were  scarcely 
fifty  Americans  in  all  New  Mexico,  American  influence  was 
weakening  the  ties  that  bound  the  Territory  to  the  Mexican 
Republic  at  the  same  time  that  the  overland  trade  was 
making  it  commercially  dependent  upon  the  United  States. 

135.  The  Revolution  of  1837.  —  While  New  Mexican  life 
was  being  thus  stimulated  by  business  and  social  contact 
with  the  robust  western  element  from  the  United  States, 
centralization  was  gaining  control  in  the  Mexican  Republic. 
In  1835  General  Santa  Anna,  President  of  the  Republic, 
sent  out  Lieutenant  Colonel  Albino  Perez  (al-be'no  pa'res) 


112 


THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 


of  the  Mexican  army  as  governor  of  New  Mexico.  He 
was  the  first  Mexican  governor  who  had  not  been  a  New 
Mexican  by  either  birth  or  residence ;  and  when  he  reached 
Santa  Fe  in  June,  he  was  coldly  received.  The  adoption 
of  the  Mexican  Constitution  of  1836,  making  the  Mexican 
government  more  like  a  monarchy,  although  it  made  New 
Mexico  a  coequal  Department,  made  his  position  still 

. more  uncomfortable.     It  looked 

as  if  outsiders  were  coming  into 
as  complete  control  as  in  the 
days  of  Spanish  rule. 

The  unpopular  new  Constitu- 
tion with  its  system  of  taxation 
was  to  go  into  effect  in  April, 
1837.  In  tne  meantime  General 
Manuel  Armijo  (ma-nweT  ar- 
me'ho),  of  Albuquerque,  a  man 
of  wealth  and  towering  ambition, 
urged  the  people  to  resist  the 
change.  Followers  flocked  to 
his  standard  so  easily  that  the 
movement  quickly  became  dom- 
inated by  ignorant  Indians  from 
the  northern  pueblos  and  by  the  lower  class  cf  New 
Mexicans.  In  August  (1837)  they  gathered  at  La  Canada 
and  issued  their  revolutionary  proclamation  against  admit- 
ting the  Departmental  plan  or  any  taxation. 

Governor  Perez  started  with  a  hundred  and  fifty  men 
to  disperse  the  rebels ;  but  most  of  his  followers  deserted 
to  the  enemy,  and  he  fled  to  the  capital.  That  night  he 
left  in  flight  toward  Albuquerque.  The  following  morning 
he  was  overtaken  and  beheaded  and  six  of  his  companions 


GOVERNOR  MANUEL  ARMIJO 


THE   MEXICAN   PERIOD  113 

killed.  The  rebels  entered  Santa  Fe,  August  10,  and 
elected  Jose  Gonzales  (gon-sa'las),  an  ignorant  buffalo 
hunter  of  Taos,  as  governor. 

136.  Armijo  Seizes  Control.  —  Thus  far  General  Armijo 
had  kept  himself  in  the  background ;   and  now  his  Indian 
and  New  Mexican  allies  had  left  him  out.     He  sullenly 
retired  to  his  estate  at  Albuquerque  and  planned  to  over- 
throw Gonzales  and  reestablish  the  authority  of  the  Mexican 
government  with  himself  as   governor.     The    undertaking 
proved  to  be  easy.     On  his  approach  to  the  capital  Gonzales 
fled  northward.     Armijo  entered  without  opposition  and 
proclaimed  himself  governor.     For  all  this  he  was  appointed 
governor  and  ruled  (excepting  the  period  from  April  28, 
1844  to  November,  1845)  to  tne  end  of  the  Mexican  period. 
The  following  January  (1838)  he  crushed  the  last  of  the 
rebels  at  La   Canada  and  executed   Gonzales  and  other 
leading  insurgents,  men  who  had  been  his  own  associates 
in  the  plot  of  a  year  before. 

137.  Results  of  the  Revolt.  —  New  Mexico  had  gained 
nothing.     Foreign  residents  of  Santa  Fe  and  other  points 
had  spent  a  year  in  constant  dread  of  being  mobbed.     Un- 
scrupulous  persons   had    tried   persistently   to   make  the 
people  believe  that  the  American  merchants  in  Santa  Fe 
were  connected  with  the  revolutionary  plot.     And  when 
Armijo  started  his  counter  revolution  against  Gonzales, 
the  latter  threatened  to  call  in  Texan  aid.     It  was  the  idle 
threat  of  a  scheming  politician,  but  it  aroused  bitter  indig- 
nation against  the  Texans,  which  was  to  have  its  effect  at 
the  time  of  the  Texas-Santa  Fe  Expedition,  four  years  later, 
and  again  at  the  opening  of  the  Civil  War  (sees.  139-141, 201). 

138.  Progress    of    the    Overland    Trade.  —  These    dis- 
turbances  could   not   fail   to   injure   the   overland   trade, 


114  THE   HISTORY    OF   NEW    MEXICO 

though  it  was  now  too  well  established  and  too  deeply 
rooted  in  the  needs  of  the  New  Mexicans  and  the  enter- 
prising spirit  of  the  Westerners  to  be  ruined  by  the  dis- 
orders of  the  times.  It  dropped  off  heavily  in  1838,  only 
to  be  more  than  doubled  in  the  following  year.  Then 
(1839)  Governor  Armijo  struck  it  a  despotic  blow  by  his 
arbitrary  tax  of  $500  per  wagon,  no  matter  how  small  the 
load  nor  how  coarse  the  goods.  Again  the  imports  dropped 
off.  The  traders,  however,  soon  learned  to  use  only  the 
largest  wagons  loaded  with  goods  of  high  value;  Armijo 
returned  to  the  old  tariff  according  to  the  value  of  the 
goods ;  and  the  trade  continued  to  grow. 

139.  The  Texas-Santa  Fe  Expedition,  1841.  —  The 
growth  of  this  overland  commerce  from  the  Missouri 
River  to  Santa  Fe  had  not  been  overlooked  by  the  enter- 
prising Texans.  They  saw  no  reason  why  much  of  this 
profitable  business  might  not  be  diverted  to  the  shorter 
route  from  Austin  to  Santa  'Fe.  In  the  spring  of  1841, 
therefore,  President  Lamar  of  the  Texan  Republic  fitted 
out  an  expedition  to  try  its  fortunes  in  such  an  enterprise. 
Moreover,  Texas  claimed  all  of  the  country  east  of  the 
Rio  Grande  and  believed  that  the  New  Mexicans,  groaning 
under  Mexican  oppression,  would  welcome  the  protection 
and  free  institutions  of  the  Lone  Star  Repulic.1  To  pro- 
vide for  such  an  event  the  President  sent  along  three 
commissioners  to  learn  the  sentiment  of  the  people  and 
offer  them  the  protection  of  the  Republic  if  they  desired 
the  change.  Otherwise  the  commissioners  were  to  confine 
their  efforts  to  promoting  plans  for  the  overland  trade 
between  New  Mexico  and  Texas. 

1  Perhaps  the  story  of  Gonzales's  threat  to  call  in  the  Texans  to  save  him  from  Armijo 
had  reached  Texas. 


THE   MEXICAN   PERIOD  11$ 

The  expedition  of  fifty  traders  with  their  cargoes  of 
merchandise,  accompanied  by  a  number  of  scientists  and 
sight-seers,  left  Austin  in  June,  1841,  under  an  escort  of 
two  hundred  and  seventy  volunteer  cavalry  commanded 
by  General  Hugh  McLeod.  Through  the  Indian  country 
north  to  the  Red  River  and  west  toward  Santa  Fe,  over 
the  forgotten  trail  of  Vial  (sec.  103),  they  came  in  through 
Anton  Chico  (an-ton'  che'ko)  and  the  Pecos  country. 

140.  Capture  and  Imprisonment.  —  Meanwhile  wild 
stories  of  the  ruthless  and  bloodthirsty  character  of  the 


A  CARAVAN  ENTERING  SAXTA  FE 

Texans  were  being  circulated,  and  Governor  Armijo 
stationed  Captain  Damasio  Salazar  (da-ma' sy 6  sa-la-sar') 
with  a  hundred  troops  on  the  east  side  of  the  mountains 
to  watch  for  their  approach.  In  September  and  October 
they  arrived  and  were  captured  by  Salazar  and  Armijo. 
An  advance  party  of  five  men,  going  ahead  toward  Santa 
Fe  to  confer  with  the  Governor,  was  captured  by  Salazar 
at  La  Cuesta  (lavas' ta)  and  lined  up  at  once  to  be  shot, 


Il6  THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

but  was  saved  from  immediate  death  by  the  protest  of 
Gregorio  Vigil  (ve-hel'),  a  high-minded  New  Mexican 
with  considerable  influence  in  the  Pecos  country.  Two  of 
their  less  fortunate  companions  were  shot  for  trying  to 
escape.  One  of  them,  Samuel  Rowland,  of  New  Bedford, 
Massachusetts,  had  come  along  as  interpreter  and  sight- 
seer. 

When  General  Armijo  had  gathered  in  all  the  prisoners 
on  the  east  side  of  the  mountains  and  confiscated  their 
goods,  he  returned  to  Santa  Fe  and  sent  the  Texans  to 
prisons  in  Mexico  City.  South  to  El  Paso  they  were  under 
command  of  the  cruel  and  ruthless  Captain  Salazar.  As 
they  went  down  the  Rio  Grande  the  cart  in  which  a  crippled 
Tennesseean  named  McAllister  was  riding,  broke '  down. 
Salazar,  though  he  had  half  a  dozen  mules  with  no  riders, 
ordered  McAllister  to  walk  fast  and  catch  up  with  the 
crowd  —  or  be  shot  on  the  spot.  His  dead  body  was  thrown 
by  the  roadside,  stripped  of  clothing  and  with  both  ears 
cut  off. 

When  the  prisoners  were  turned  over  to  General  Elias 
(a-le'as)  Gonzales  at  El  Paso,  all,  except  McAllister  and 
four  others,  answered  the  roll  call.  And  Salazar  presented 
to  the  new  commander  a  string  of  ten  human  ears  as  grim 
evidence  that  none  had  escaped.  From  there  to  Mexico 
City  the  men  fared  better;  for  this  "  General  .Elias  "  was 
a  soldier  of  honor. 

They  did  not  remain  long  in  prison.  Many  of  them 
were  not  Texans  at  all,  but  Englishmen,  Americans,  and 
others,  who  had  come  along  as  traders  or  mere  adventurers 
with  the  sight-seer's  longing  for  strange  lands.  They 
were  soon  released  by  General  Santa  Anna  under  pressure 
from  their  governments. 


THE  MEXICAN   PERIOD  117 

141.  Results  of  the  Expedition.  —  Up  to  this  time  the 
Texan  claim  to  eastern  New  Mexico  and  the  empty  threat 
of  the  rebel  Governor  Gonzales  to  call  in  the  Texans  to 
bolster  up  his  declining  fortunes  in  1837-1838  (sec.  137- 
139)  had  aroused  resentment  in  New  Mexico.     Now  that 
feeling  was  intensified,  and  at  the  same  time  bitter  indigna- 
tion burst  forth  in  Texas  over  the  treatment  of  her  citizens 
and    those   who   accompanied    them.     "  They   were   bar- 
barously  shot,"   wrote   Sam   Houston   to   General   Santa 
Anna,  "  their  bodies  mangled,  and  their  corpses  left  un- 
buried.     The  butchery  of  McAllister,  Galpin,  Yates,  and 
others  appeals  to  Heaven  and  this  nation  for  retribution 
on  the  heads  of  their  inhuman  murderers." 

The  situation  was  still  further  complicated  by  the  fact 
that  many  Americans  from  all  parts  of  the  country  from 
Texas  to  far-away  New  England  were  in  the  expedition. 
The  story  of  their  mistreatment  and  sufferings  aroused 
widespread  resentment,  especially  among  the  southwestern 
pioneer  element,  at  a  time  when  the  relations  between  the 
United  States  and  Mexico  were  already  strained  to  the 
breaking  point. 

142.  Effect  on  the  Overland  Trade.  —  Again  the  Santa 
Fe  trade  suffered  from  the  disorders  of  the  times.     Early  in 
1843  a  band  of  fifteen  marauders  from  the  border,  under 
Captain  John  McDaniel,  robbed  and  murdered  Antonio 
Jose  Chaves,  a  wealthy  New  Mexican  trader,  on  the  Trail 
near  the  Little  Arkansas.     A  little  later  that  spring  (1843) 
Colonel  Warfield  with  a  band  of  twenty  Texans  raided  the 
town  of  Mora  and  killed  five  men,  but  had  to  flee  for  his 
life.     In  May  (1843)  a  hundred  and  eighty  Texans  under 
Colonel  Jacob  Snively  went  up  to  the  Arkansas  to  attack 
the  spring  caravans.     Their  first  engagement  was  with  the 


I  IS  THE  HISTORY   OF  NEW    MEXICO 

advance  guard  of  General  Armijo's  escort  going  out  to  meet 
the  caravan.  Snively's  men  killed  eighteen  of  the  New 
Mexicans  and  captured  most  of  the  others.  When  those 
who  escaped  carried  the  news  of  the  disaster  to  Armijo's 
camp,  he  fled  in  haste  toward  Santa  Fe.  A  little  later 
Captain  Philip  St.  George  Cooke  escorted  the  traders  to  the 
Arkansas,  disarmed  the  Texans,  and  allowed  the  caravan 
to  proceed  on  its  way  toward  New  Mexico  unmolested. 

Throughout  the  winter  of  1842-1843  Americans  in  New 
Mexico  had  fared  badly.  A  score  of  them  had  fled  to 
California ;  and  when  news  came  back  from  the  Arkansas 
that  the  disaster  to  Armijo's  men  had  fallen  heavily  on 
Indians  from  Taos,  the  American  residents  of  that  region 
had  to  flee  for  their  lives. 

Another  serious  result  was  the  decree  of  President  Santa 
Anna  closing  the  northern  ports  to  all  foreign  commerce, 
August  7,  1843.  But  the  New  Mexicans  had  too  long 
enjoyed  the  comforts  and  conveniences  secured  through 
this  trade.  The  caravan  that  spring  had  brought  $450,000 
worth  of  goods.  Most  of  the  revenues  of  the  Department 
came  from  the  tariff  duties.  The  ties  binding  it  to  the 
Mexican  Republic  were  every  day  growing  weaker.  Clearly, 
if  Santa  Anna  pressed  his  autocratic  power  too  far,  it 
might  cost  him  a  Department.  The  obnoxious  decree 
was,  therefore,  withdrawn  March  31,  1844,  in  time  for  the 
caravan  to  bring  $200,000  worth  of  goods  to  Santa  Fe  that 
summer.  The  time  had  passed  when  this  commerce  could 
be  stopped  by  the  decree  of  a  despot. 

143.  The  Indian  Problem.  —  Since  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century  the  Pueblos  had  given  little  trouble 
except  by  taking  part  in  the  general  New  Mexican  dis- 
turbance in  1837  (sec-  I35)-  They  were  a  quiet,  simple 


THE   MEXICAN   PERIOD 


119 


people ;  industrious  and  provident,  perhaps,  after  the 
Indian  fashion ;  brave  in  battle,  but  not  aggressive  in  the 
unequal  contest  with  their  wild  neighbors.  They  numbered 
about  9,000  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

The  wild  tribes  were  much  more  numerous.  The 
Apaches  alone  counted  about  15,000  during  the  Mexican 
period  and  were  the  most  widely  scattered.  Little  change 
had  come  over  their  conduct  or  that  of  the  Navajos.  They 


A  PACK  TRAIN 

murdered  people  and  plundered  the  settlements  almost  at 
will.  When  pursued  by  troops,  they  generally  escaped 
without  suffering  serious  harm.  Even  though  punished 
now  and  then,  they  were  still  uncontrolled. 

144.  Travel  and  Communication.  —  Travel,  therefore, 
was  nowhere  safe.  Nor  were  there  any  roads  except  the 
Indian  trails  across  the  plains,  through  the  mountain 
passes,  and  along  the  rivers,  which  had  been  worn  into 
rough  highways  by  the  horses,  carts,  and  pack  trains 


120 


THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 


of  the  Spaniards.  Travel  over  these  roads  was  slow  and 
difficult.  Yet  the  large  and  generous  hospitality  which 
had  been  one  of  the  fine  traditions  of  the  people  from  the 
earliest  days  of  the  colony  made  the  wayfarer  in  the  settle- 
ments sure  of  shelter  when  night  came  on. 

Beyond  New  Mexico's  borders  the  gates  were  every- 
where still  closed  at  the  beginning  of  Mexican  times, 
except  over  the  one  long  trail  to  Chihuahua.  Then 


SPANISH  AND  MEXICAN  CARTS 

quickly  came  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  from  the  Missouri  River 
(sees.  124, 128)  and  the  Gila  and  Spanish  trails  to  California 
(sec.  131).  Over  the  Chihuahua  road  the  Mexican  govern- 
ment established  a  regular  mail  service  to  Santa  Fe  twice 
a  month.  By  the  forties  it  came  only  once  a  month  and 
very  irregularly  at  that.  Santa  Fe  and  Tome  (to-ma'), 
near  Belen,  were  the  only  post  offices  in  all  New  Mexico. 

145.   Commerce  and  Industry.  —  The  opening  of  these 
new  trails,  especially  the  one  to  the  Missouri  River,  revo- 


THE   MEXICAN   PERIOD  121 

lutionized  and  multiplied  the  trade  of  the  province  many 
fold  in  a  single  generation.  Formerly  the  one  long  trail 
from  Vera  Cruz  and  Mexico  City  had  been  the  only  source 
of  supplies  from  the  outside  world.  Now  American  and 
New  Mexican  traders  were  bringing  many  thousands  of 
dollars'  worth  of  goods  by  regular  caravan  over  the  shorter 
trail  from  the  Missouri  River  every  summer.  New  Mexico 
no  longer  faced  south,  but  east.  Her  front  door  was  not 
the  Rio  Grande  highway,  but  Apache  Canyon. 

In  agriculture  there  was  no  marked  change.  Stock 
raising  made  some  advance.  Sheep  raising  in  particular 
was  benefited  by  the  new  American  market  for  wool.  The 
day  of  the  "  sheep  king  "  was  coming. 

Manufacturing  and  industrial  pursuits  generally  went 
on  in  the  old  way  —  by  only  the  crudest  methods  of  hand 
industry.  Some  distilleries,  one  powder  factory,  several 
small  mines,  and  a  few  mills  complete  the  story. 

"These  mills,"  wrote  an  American  officer  in  1846,  "like  everything 
else  in  New  Mexico,  are  of  very  primitive  style.  There  is  a  vertical 
axis,  on  the  lower  end  of  which  is  the  water-wheel;  the  other  end 
passes  through  the  lower  burr,  and  is  firmly  connected  with  the 
upper  stone,  which,  as  the  axis  turns,  revolves  upon  the  lower  stone. 
Above  all  this,  hangs  a  large  hopper  of  ox-hide,  kept  open  at  the  top 
by  a  square  frame,  and  narrowed  off  towards  the  bottom,  so  as  to 
present  the  form  of  an  inverted  cone.  In  the  extremity  of  the  bag  is 
a  small  opening,  and  this  is  fastened  to  a  little  trough.  One  end  of 
this  trough  being  supported  by  its  connection  with  the  hopper,  the 
other  end,  or  mouth,  is  sustained  by  a  horizontal  strip  of  wood,  of 
which  an  extremity  rests  on  an  upright;  and  the  other  is  upheld 
by  an  inclined  stick  that  rests  on  the  upper  burr,  so  that  the  motion 
of  the  burr  gives  a  jostling  motion  to  the  trough  and  hopper;  thus 
the  grain  falls  into  the  opening  in  the  center  of  the  upper  burr,  and 
passes  out  between  the  two  burrs." 


122  THE  HISTORY   OF  NEW  MEXICO 

146.  Education.  —  The  Mexican  period  saw  little  prog- 
ress in  education.     The  missions  had  always  been  primarily 
occupied  with  the  Indians.     Spain's  declining  power  in  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  had  left  little  energy 
for  anything  but  the  bare  fight  for  existence.     Many  of 
the  Franciscans  withdrew  from  New  Mexico  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Mexican  period.     The  Mexican  Republic 
suffered  from  frequent  revolutions  and  a  rapid  succession 
of  rulers.     And  New  Mexico  had  little  money  to  invest  in 
education.     Santa  Fe,  Albuquerque,  and  a  few  other  towns 
had  private  schools.     Teachers  were  few  and  poorly  trained. 

147.  The  Introduction  of  Printing.  —  There  was  but  one 
printing  press  and  one  printer  in  New  Mexico  prior  to  the 
American    Occupation    (1846).     The    press    was  probably 
brought  from  Mexico  City1    in  the   spring  of   1834,  and 
the  printer,  Jose  Maria  Baca,  came  from  Mexico  City  and 
was  publishing  a  periodical  in  Santa  Fe  in  the  summer  of 
1834.     A   year   later   Father  Antonio   Jose   Martinez,    of 
Taos,  brought  out  four   numbers   of   El  Crepilsculo  (kra- 
poos'koo-16) ,    the   Dawn,   the   second   periodical   and    the 
first  one  whose  name  is  known.     Two  others  appeared 
in  the  next  ten  years. 

148.  Social    Life.  —  The    generous    hospitality    of    the 
well-to-do  New  Mexican  families  was  proverbial.     Even 
the  adobe  hut  of  the  poorest  ranchman  was  open  to  the 
passing   stranger.     The   people   were   polite,    easy   going, 
pleasure  loving,   contented,  intensely  fond  of  home  and 
family.    Of  an  artistic  temperament,  they  were  inordinately 
fond  of  music  and  dancing.     Cock  fighting,  card  playing, 
and  dice,  with  a  considerable  amount  of  gambling,  made 
up  a  regular  part  of  the  sport  and  recreation  of  the  time. 

1  Josiah  Gregg,  the  famous  Santa  F6  trader,  believed  that  tha  press  came  from  the  United 
States    (Commerce  of  the  Prairies,  I,  200). 


THE   MEXICAN   PERIOD  123 

Wine  flowed  freely,  though  drunkenness  was  rare. 
Whisky  was  practically  unknown  until  after  the  coming  of 
the  Americans  in  the  twenties.  Then  Taos  whisky  be- 
came as  famous  as  El  Paso  wine.  Petty  offenses  were 
frequent ;  serious  crime  was  rare. 

The  population  was  composed  of  two  fairly  distinct 
classes  :  (i)  the  old  and  well-to-do  families  of  pure  Spanish 


A  SANTA  FE  STREET  SCENE  IN  THE  FORTIES 

blood  and  traditions;    and  (2)  the  lower  classes,  of  mixed 
blood,  part  Spanish  and  part  Indian. 

149.  Peonage  and  Indian  Slavery.  —  From  this  latter 
class  came  the  peons.  The  peon  was  not  a  slave  whose 
person  might  be  sold  from  master  to  master,  but  an  un- 
fortunate debtor  bound  by  Spanish  and  Mexican  custom 
to  "  voluntary  "  service  until  his  debt  was  paid.  The 
pittance  of  two  or  three  dollars  a  month  which  he  received 
in  goods  at  his  master's  price  would  barely  support  himself 


124 


THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 


and  family,  if  he  had  a  family.  And  in  extreme  cases  the 
poor  fellow  might  work  a  lifetime,  only  to  find  that  his  debt 
of  fifty  or  a  hundred  dollars  was  still  unpaid  and  that  one 


THE  SEVEN  COUNTIES  OF  NEW  MEXICO,  1846 

After  an  old  government  map  drawn  by  order  of  General  Kearny. 

of  his  children  must  enter  this  unjust  servitude  for  him. 
He  was  a  slave  without  the  name,  but  more  unfortunate 
than  the  American  Negro  because  no  master  was  respon- 
sible for  his  support  in  sickness  or  old  age. 


THE   MEXICAN   PERIOD  125 

There  was  also  undisguised  Indian  slavery.  Navajo 
captives  were  the  favorites.  Girls  and  women  sold  for 
from  a  hundred  to  three  hundred  dollars  each. 

150.  Government.  —  With  Mexican  independence  came 
new   political   customs.     In    1822    the   people   elected   the 
members  of  an  "  electoral  college  "  to  choose  a  Territorial 
legislature  and  a  Deputy  to  represent  New  Mexico  in  the 
Mexican  Congress.     That  was  the  first  general  election  in 
New  Mexico.    Furthermore,  any  town  of  a  thousand  inhab- 
itants might  have  an  ayuntamiento  (a-yoon-ta-myan'to), 
or  popular  common  council.     A  judicial  system  was  out- 
lined by  the  Constitution  of    1836,  but   never  organized 
in  New  Mexico. 

The  governor  was  still  appointed  by  the  authorities  at 
Mexico  City,  though  generally  from  a  list  of  persons  named 
by  the  New  Mexico  legislature.  Until  1837  he  was 
known  as  Jefe  Politico  (ha/fa  po-le'te-ko),  or  Political  Chief 
of  the  Territory,  then  as  Governor  of  the  Department. 
After  1837  he  controlled  all  departments  of  the  govern- 
ment almost  as  completely  as  in  Spanish  times  (sec.  121). 
The  Department  was  divided  into  three  districts,  each 
under  a  prefect  appointed  by  the  governor.  These  dis- 
tricts were  again  divided  (by  decree  of  1844)  into  seven 
countries  —  Taos,  Rio  Arriba  (ar-re'ba),  Santa  Fe,  San 
Miguel  del  Bado,  Santa  Ana,  Bernalillo,  and  Valencia  — 
with  alcaldes,  cr  justices  of  the  peace,  nominated  by  the 
prefect  and  appointed  by  the  governor. 

151.  The  End  of  the  Mexican  Era.  —  This  centralized 
scheme  of  government  was  a  part  of  the  general  plan  of 
the  dictator,    General  Santa  Anna,   who  was  many  times 
president   of    the   Mexican   Republic ;    but  it  had   little 
strength  of  its  own  because  it  was  not  deeply  rooted  in  the 


126  THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

affections  of  the  people.  Nor  was  it  likely  to  gain  in  popu- 
larity in  the  hands  of  an  autocrat  like  Governor  Armijo. 
Only  a  slight  jar  would  be  necessary  to  cause  the  whole 
structure  to  topple  down.  Such  a  jar  came  from  events 
taking  place  in  Mexico  City,  on  the  Rio  Grande  in  southern 
Texas,  and  in  the  United  States. 

GENERAL  READINGS 

H.  H.  BANCROFT,  History  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  310-343. 

L.  B.  BLOOM,  "New  Mexico  under  Mexican  Administration,"  in  Old 
Santa  Ft,  I,  3-49,  131-175,  235-287,  347-368;  II,  3-56,  119-169,  223-277, 
35 1-380.  The  best  account  of  the  Mexican  period. 

L.  B.  PRINCE,  A  Concise  History  of  New  Mexico,  148-155,  159-174. 

B.  M.  READ,  Illustrated  History  of  New  Mexico,  363-415. 

R.  E.  TWITCHELL,  Tke  Leading  Facts  of  New  Mexican  History,  II,  3-90, 
103-138,  146-193- 

J.  H.  VAUGHAN,  History  of  Education  in  New  Mexico,  Chapter  IV. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS 

1.  THE  SANTA  FE  TRAIL.     H.  M.  Chittenden,  The  American  Fur  Trade 
of  the  Far  West,  II,  530-553;  H.  Inman,  The  Old  Santa  Fe  Trail,  27-101. 

2.  CHARACTER  AND  IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SANTA  FE  TRADE.     H.  M. 
Chittenden,  Same  as  above,  II,  489-529;  F.  L.  Paxson,  The  Last  American 
Frontier,  53-69 ;  Josiah  Gregg,  The  Commerce  of  the  Prairies,  or,  The  Journal 
of  a  Santa  Fe  Trader,  1831-1839. 

3.  THE  SOUTHWESTERN  FUR  TRADE.     R..G.  Thwaites  (ed.},  The  Per- 
sonal Narrative  of  James  O.  Pattie  of  Kentucky  ("Early  Western  Travels" 
Series,  XVIII);  T.  M.  Marshall,  "St.  Vrain's  Expedition  to  the  Gila  in 
1826,"  in  Southwestern  Historical  Quarterly,  XIX  (Jan.,  1916),  251-260,  also 
in  The  Pacific  Ocean  in  History,  429-438. 

4.  THE  TEXAS-SANTA  FE  EXPEDITION.     T.  M.  Marshall,  "Commercial 
Aspects  of  the  Texas  Santa  Fe  Expedition,"  in  Southwestern  Historical 
Quarterly,  XX  (Jan.,  1917),  242-259;  G.  W.  Kendall,  Narrative  of  the  Texas- 
Santa  Fe  Expedition,  2  vols. 

5.  POLITICAL  AND  SOCLVL  CONDITIONS  IN  MEXICO.     J.  H.  Smith,  Tin- 
War  with  Mexico,  I,  1-57. 

6.  RELATIONS  BETWEEN  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  MEXICO,  1825-184^. 
J.  H!  Smith,  The  War  with  Mexico,  I,  58-111 ;  G.  L.  Rives,  The  United  Stal(  v 
and  Mexico,  1821-1848.     2  vols. 


THE   MEXICAN   PERIOD  127 


QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Who  is  called  the  Father  of  the  Santa  Fe  Trade?     Why?     Why  did 
he  succeed  where  so  many  others  had  failed? 

2.  Of  what  importance  was  the  fur  trade?     Why  do  we  know  so  much 
less  about  it  than  about  the  overland  trade? 

3.  Why  was  the  overland  trade  popular  with  the  Americans?     New 
Mexicans?     New  Mexican  officers? 

4.  What  would  a  caravan  coming  west  be  loaded  with?     Going  east? 
How  profitable  was  the  business? 

5.  Trace  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  on  your  map,  indicating  important  points. 

6.  Give  an  account  of  the  overland  journey.     What   was  the   usual 
"freight  rate"  to  Santa  Fe? 

7.  Why  did  not  this  commerce  receive  more  support  from  the  American 
government? 

8.  When  was  communication  with  California  first  established?     Trace 
the  Gila  Trail ;    the  Spanish  Trail. 

9.  Mention  some  of  the  earliest  American  pioneers  in  New  Mexico. 
What  do  you  know  about  Kit  Carson? 

10.  What  were  the  causes  of  the  revolutionary  disturbance  in   1837- 
1838?     How  did  General  Armijo  get  control  of  affairs? 

11.  What  were  the  results  of  the  revolt?     Was  New  Mexico  better  off 
for  it?     Why?     How  did  it  affect  the  overland  trade? 

12.  What  were  the  objects  of  the  Texas-Santa  Fe  Expedition?     Why 
did  it  fail  in  both?     How  did  it  affect  the  Santa  Fe  trade?     American  resi- 
dents of  New  Mexico? 

13.  What  Indians  were  most  troublesome  during  this  period?     Why 
were  they  still  uncontrolled? 

14.  What  were  the  conditions  of  travel  within  New  Mexico?     Of  com- 
munication with  the  outside  world? 

15.  What  changes  came  over  New  Mexican  commerce  in  this  period? 
Agriculture  ? 

16.  What  were  the  chief  industrial  activities  of  the  region? 

17.  Why  was  there  so  little  progress  in  education?     When  was  printing 
introduced? 

18.  Describe  the  social  life  and  customs  of  the  time.     What  were  the 
chief  sports  and  amusements? 

19.  How  did  peons  differ  from  slaves? 

20.  What  were  the  chief  political  changes  at  the  beginning  of  Mexican 
independence?     What  changes  were  made  by  the  Mexican    Constitution 
of  1836? 

21.  Why  was  Mexico  in  danger  of  losing  New  Mexico? 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE   AMERICAN   OCCUPATION 
I.     CAUSES  OF  THE   MEXICAN  WAR 

152.  Anarchy  in  Mexico.  —  Republican  government  in 
Mexico  was  so  unstable  that  by  1832  General  Santa  Anna 
was  able  to  overthrow  the  constitution  and  set  up  a  dictator- 
ship. Many  of  the  Mexican  states  rose  in  revolt  against 
him  and  in  defense  of  the  constitution.  Texas,  whose 
people  came  largely  from  the  United  States,  was  the  natural 
leader  in  such  a  movement.  The  American  element  there 
had  but  recently  helped  to  conquer  the  western  wilderness 
and  to  build  the  new  States  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  and 
would  not  be  satisfied  to  live  long  under  a  military  dictator- 
ship anywhere.  The  struggle  rapidly  became  a  revolu- 
tion. Texas  declared  her  independence  and  won  it  at  San 
Jacinto  (ha-sen'to),  April  21,  1836. 

American  life  and  property  were  already  unsafe  in 
Mexico,  and  the  Texan  revolution  made  the  situation 
worse;  for  many  Americans,  especially  Westerners,  had 
sympathized  with  the  Texans  and  helped  them  in  their 
struggle  for  independence.  All  over  Mexico  from  that 
time  on  Americans  were  mistreated,  their  property  was 
destroyed,  and  no  redress  could  be  had.  We  have  already 
seen  instances  in  New  Mexico  in  1837  anc^  agam  m  J84i 
and  1843  (sees.  134-137,  139-142).  Claims  for  damages 
to  property  alone  quickly  mounted  into  the  millions  (sec. 

128 


THE  AMERICAN  OCCUPATION 


I2Q 


181) ;  but  payment  was  not  forthcoming.  The  story  of 
the  sufferings  of  American  citizens  who  had  accompanied 
the  Texas-Santa  Fe  Expedition,  drifting  back  into  the 
United  States  in  the  summer  of  1842,  added  to  the  diffi- 
culties of  the  situation. 

153.  The  Annexation  of  Texas.  —  The  Westerners  were 
clearly  impatient  because  their  government  failed  to  take 
more  vigorous  action  to- 
ward Mexico.  Mean- 
while a  steady  stream  of 
pioneers  from  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  was  pouring 
into  the  Republic  of 
Texas,  yet  longing  for 
the  protection  of  the 
Stars  and  Stripes  to  fol- 
low them. 

Back  in  the  United 
States,  however,  the 
movement  for  the  annex- 
ation of  Texas  was  hin- 
dered by  the  controversy 

over  slavery  then  going  PRESIDENT  JAMES  K-  PoLK> 
on  between  the  North  and  the  South.  Because  Texas  lay 
next  to  the  slave  States  the  Abolitionist  forces  of  the  North 
and  East  opposed  the  annexation  of  Texas,  while  the  whole 
country  was  clamoring  for  the  acquisition  of  Oregon.  But 
the  spirit  of  expansion  won.  James  K.  Folk's  campaign 
cry  (1844)  of  the  "  reoccupation  of  Oregon "  and  the 
"  reannexation  of  Texas  "  summed  up  this  spirit  and  re- 
minded the  Americans  that  they  had  once  had  a  shadowy 
claim  to  Texas  as  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase.  They 


130  THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

gave  the  policy  a  clear  indorsement  at  the  polls  that  fall, 
and  Texas  was  annexed  the  following  year. 

154.  The  Controversy  over  Texas.  —  The  Texan  Re- 
public in  1836  had  denned  its  boundaries  to  include  all 
former  Mexican  territory  east  of  the  Rio  Grande.  Presi- 
dent Polk,  recognizing  that  much  of  this  region,  especially 
eastern  New  Mexico,  was  historically  Mexican  territory 
separate  and  distinct  from  Texas,  immediately  sent  a 
representative  to  Mexico  to  settle  the  boundary  question 
in  a  just  and  friendly  manner  —  offering  to  buy  the  whole 
disputed  region. 

But  Mexico  refused  to  discuss  the  boundary  or  even  to 
hear  the  President's  proposals  for  a  peaceable  settlement. 
She  still  claimed  that  all  of  Texas  was  hers,  though  that 
country  had  been  an  independent  Republic  for  nine  years  — 
recognized  by  the  United  States,  England,  France,  and 
other  European  countries  —  before  annexation.  Mexico 
insisted  that  Texas  was  still  one  of  her  Departments.  The 
worn-out  theory  that  the  trouble  was  over  some  "  disputed 
territory  "  lying  between  the  Nueces  and  the  Rio  Grande 
was  pure  fiction  manufactured  in  the  United  States  and 
never  recognized  by  any  Mexican  until  the  armies  faced 
each  other  across  the  Rio  Grande  at  Matamoros  (ma-ta- 
mo' ros)  in  April,  1846.  Then,  for  the  first  time,  General 
Ampudia  (am-poo'thya)  took  advantage  of  the  American 
myth  of  the  "  disputed  territory  "  and  ordered  General 
Taylor  back  across  the  Nueces. 

The  territory  in  actual  dispute  was  the  whole  State  of 
Texas  to  the  Sabine  River.  But  Texas  was  already  under 
the  Stars  and  Stripes ;  and  no  American,  not  even  the 
most  conservative  Easterner,  thought  of  discussing  that 
question.  President  Polk,  therefore,  sent  Brigadier  General 


THE  AMERICAN  OCCUPATION  13 T 

Zachary  Taylor  with  an  "  Army  of  Occupation  "  to  pro- 
tect   the    southwestern    boundary    of    Texas — American 


territory  —  from  invasion  until  such  time  as  Mexico  should 
be  ready  to  make  a  reasonable  settlement. 


132  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

155.  The  Spirit  of  Expansion.  —  This  was  the  heroic 
age  in  the  westward  expansion  of  the  American  people. 
The  movement  for  New  Mexico  and  California  was  rooted 
in  the  ancient  land-hunger  of  the  race  and  in  the  restless, 
pushing  energy  of  the  western  pioneer  with  his  feeling  of 
manifest  destiny  to  rule  the  continent.     "  The  Westerners," 
said    the    late    Theodore    Roosevelt,    "  honestly    believed 
themselves  to  be  indeed  created  the  heirs  of  the  earth,  or 
at  least  so  much  of  it  as  was  known  by  the  name  of  North 
America,  and  were  prepared  to  struggle  stoutly  for  the 
immediate  possession  of  their  heritage."     Texas  was  already 
American.     The  commerce  of  New  Mexico  was  completely 
Americanized    (sees.   124-127,   138,    145);     and   the   same 
process  was  going  on  in  California. 

156.  The  Commencement  of  Hostilities.  —  In  March, 
1846,  Mexico  definitely  refused  to  discuss  Texas  or  the 
boundary  question,  and  General  Taylor  moved  his  Army 
of  Occupation  from   Corpus   Christi  to   the  Rio   Grande 
opposite  Matamoros.     On  April  24  the  Mexican  commander 
sent  word  that  hostilities  had  begun,  and  his  troops  began 
to  cross  to  the  American  side  of  the  river.     The  following 
day  they  fell  upon  a  detachment  of  Talyor's  men,  killed 
eleven,  wounded  six  others,  and  captured  the  remainder. 
The  fateful  blow  had  been  struck.     When  the  news  reached 
Washington,  President  Polk  laid  the  whole  situation  before 
Congress,  May  1 1 ,  1846.     "Mexico  has  passed  the  boundary 
of  the  United  States,  has  invaded  our  territory  and  shed 
American  blood  upon  American  soil  .  .  .  war  exists,  and, 
notwithstanding  all  our  efforts  to  avoid  it,  exists  by  the 
act  of  Mexico  herself." 

Congress  immediately  recognized  the  existence  of  war, 
and  the  War  Department  made  plans  for  striking  at  three 


THE  AMERICAN   OCCUPATION 


133 


different  points  at  the  same  time,  (i)  General  Taylor's 
"Army  of  Occupation  "  was  to  cross  the  Rio  Grande  and 
move  toward  Mexico  City.  (2)  General  John  E.  Wool's 
"  Army  of  the  Center  "  from  San  Antonio  was  to  march 
on  Chihuahua.  (3)  Colonel  Stephen  W.  Kearny  with  a 
new  "Army  of  the  West,"  to  be  assembled  at  Fort  Leaven- 
worth,  was  to  occupy  New  Mexico  and  California.  The 
Vera  Cruz  expedition  under  General  Winfield  Scott,  which 
brought  into  the  field  a  fourth  army,  was  not  planned  until 
the  following  November. 

II.    THE  OCCUPATION  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

157.  Kearny  and  the  Army  of  the  West.  —  Colonel 
Kearny  was  a  professional  soldier  of  first-rate  ability,  wide 
experience,  high  charac- 
ter, and  with  no  political 
fortunes  to  be  cared  for. 
He  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  brigadier  general 
just  after  leaving  Fort 
Leavenworth.  His  army 
for  the  conquest  of  the 
northern  provinces  of 
Mexico  consisted  of  1,658 
men. 

Colonel  Sterling  Price's 
force  of  1,200  and  the 
Mormon  Battalion  of  500 
following  later  increased 
his  command  to  nearly 
3,400  men,  though  none  of  these  reinforcements  reached 
New  Mexico  until  Kearny  had  gone  on  to  California. 


GENERAL  STEPHEN  W.  KEAKNY 


134 


THE   HISTORY   OF   NEW   MEXICO 


158.  The  March  to  Bent's  Fort. --The  last  days  of 
June  and  the  first  week  in  July  (1846)  Kearny's  forces 
strung  out  across  the  plains  with  a  supply  train  of  a  hun- 
dred wagons  and  more  than  a  thousand  pack  mules,  and 
was  accompanied  by  the  annual  traders'  caravan  of  four 
hundred  and  fourteen  white-covered  "  prairie  schooners  " 
with  nearly  a  million  dollars'  worth  of  goods  bound  for 


Courtesy  tf  R.  E.  Twitclitil 

KEARNY'S  ARMY  ON  THE  MARCH 


Santa  Fe  and  Chihuahua,  over  the  well-known  Santa 
Fe  Trail.  After  a  month's  steady  marching  they  crossed 
to  the  south  side  of  the  Arkansas,  about  nine  miles  below 
Bent's  Fort.  Here  they  made  a  brief  stop  in  order  that 
the  various  detachments  might  come  together  and  march 
into  the  country  of  the  New  Mexicans  as  one  effective  unit. 
159.  Entering  New  Mexico.  —  Crossing  the  Raton  Pass 
and  following  the  trail  by  the  Wagon  Mound,  Kearny 
entered  Las  Vegas  on  the  morning  of  August  15,  assembled 


THE  AMERICAN  OCCUPATION 


135 


the  people  in  the  plaza  (pla'sa),  or  public  square,  and 
addressed  them  through  Antonio  Roubidoux,  the  inter- 
preter (sec.  132).  He  absolved  them  from  all  allegiance 
to  the  Mexican  government  and  to  General  Armijo  and 
proclaimed  himself  governor,  promising  protection  to 
their  persons,  property,  and  religion,  "  the  weak  as  well 
as  the  strong ;  the  poor  as  well  as  the  rich." 


Courtesy  of  R.  E.  TvMchell 

KEARNY  ADDRESSING  THE  PEOPLE  AT  LAS  VEGAS 


Moving   on   toward   Santa   Fe.  General   Kearny  made 

brief  stops  at  Tecolote  (ta-ko-lo'ta),  San  Miguel,  and  Pecos, 

and  repeated  substantially  the  performance  at  Las  Vegas 

-  read  his  proclamation,  accepted  oaths  of  allegiance,  and 

passed  quietly  on. 

160.  The  Approach  to  Apache  Canyon.  —  From  the 
time  Kearny  reached  Bent's  Fort  reports  had  been  coming 
in  from  various  sources  that  the  New  Mexicans  were 
making  feverish  preparations  to  resist  the  American 
advance.  He,  therefore,  sent  Captain  Philip  St.  George 
Cooke  ahead  to  Santa  Fe  to  negotiate  with  General  Armijo 


136 


THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 


for  the  peaceful  surrender  of  the  Department.  Cooke's 
description  of  Armijo  is  worth  recording :  he  was  "  a  large, 
fine  looking  man,  although  his  complexion  was  a  shade  or 
two  darker  than  the  dubious  and  varying  Spanish ;  he 
wore  a  blue  frock  coat,  with  a  rolling  collar  and  a  general's 
shoulder  straps,  blue  striped  trousers  with  gold  lace,  and 
a  red  sash." 

Though  cordially  received  by  the  Governor,  Cooke  got 
no  assurance  except  that  Armijo  would  resist  with  his 
whole  force.  And  a  few  days  later  the  news  reached 
Kearny  that  Armijo  had  four  thousand  men  with  six 
cannon  stationed  at  Apache  Canyon,  fifteen  miles  from 
Santa  Fe,  to  give  battle  in  a  position  so  strong  by  nature 
that  the  Americans  could  hardly  hope  to  force  the  passage. 


Courtesy  of  R.  K.  Tuilcttc 

GENERAL  KEARNY  ADDRESSING  THE  PEOPLE  IN  SANTA  FE,  AUGUST  19, 1846 

161.  The  "  Americans  "  Enter  Santa  Fe.  —  But  when 
the  American  army  filed  into  the  canyon  on  the  morning  of 
August  1 8,  Armijo's  forces  had  broken  up  and  left,  and 


THE  AMERICAN  OCCUPATION  137 

the  General  and  his  personal  followers  were  in  hurried 
flight  down  the  Rio  Grande.  By  sundown  the  army  was 
encamped  on  the  hills  above  the  town  of  Santa  Fe,  General 
Kearny  was  in  the  Palace  of  the  Governors,  and  the  Stars 
and  Stripes  were  floating  over  the  plaza.  A  salute  of 
thirteen  guns  announced  the  end  of  the  Mexican  period  and 
the  beginning  of  the  American.  "  Here,"  says  Lieutenant 
Emory,  "  all  persons  from  the  United  States  are  called 
Americans,  and  the  name  is  extended  to  no  other  race  on 
the  continent." 

On  the  following  morning  (August  19)  General  Kearny 
assembled  the  people  in  the  plaza,  explained  to  them  that 
he  had  come  to  take  possession  of  the  country  for  the  United 
States,  and  proclaimed  them  American  citizens.  Acting 
Governor  Juan  Bautista  Vigil  pledged  his  loyalty  to  the 
new  government.  Many  Pueblo  governors  and  even  the 
Navajo  chiefs  came  in  and  promised  friendship. 

162.  A   Bloodless    Conquest.  —  Without   firing   a   shot 
General  Kearny  had  captured  Santa  Fe  and  the  whole 
Department   of   New   Mexico.     Accustomed   to   frequent 
political   changes   during   the   Mexican  period,   neglected 
by    the   Mexican   government,    and   already   drawn   into 
close  business  relations  with  the  American  West,  the  New 
Mexicans  accepted  the  change  with  slight  opposition  and 
welcomed   the   prospect   of   becoming   American   citizens. 
Unfortunately,  however,  in  declaring  the  people  citizens 
Kearny  had  gone  beyond  the  power  of  any  commander,  and 
much  dissatisfaction  resulted. 

Five  days  after  their  arrival  the  troops  began  the  erection 
of  Fort  Marcy  on  the  high  hill  northeast  of  the  town, 
the  first  American  military  post  in  New  Mexico 

163.  The  New  Government.  —  With  the  march  to  Cali- 


138 


THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 


fornia  ahead  and  winter  coming  on,  General  Kearny 
hastened  to  organize  a  new  government  for  New  Mexico 
as  a  Territory  of  the  United  States.  September  22  he 
appointed  Charles  Bent,  governor;  Donaciano  (do-na- 
sya'no)  Vigil,  secretary;  Joab  Houghton,  Antonio  Jose 
Otero,  and  Charles  Beaubien,  judges  of  the  superior  court. 
Bent,  the  new  governor,  was  an  old  pioneer  with  in- 
fluential business  and  social  connections.  A  Virginian 

by  birth,  a  West  Pointer  by 
training,  a  fur  trader  and  mer- 
chant by  occupation,  he  was  a 
New  Mexican  by  choice  of  resi- 
dence and  family  ties.  He  had 
come  to  Santa  Fe  as  early  as 
1826  and  had  married  into  the 
prominent  and  wealthy  Jaramillo 
family  of  Taos.  He  was  a  part- 
ner in  the  firm  of  Bent  and  St. 
Vrain,  the  largest  fur-trading 
concern  in  the  Southwest,  and 
DONACIANO  VIGIL  had  extens;ve  business  interests 

in  Santa  Fe  and  elsewhere.  He  knew  New  Mexico  and 
New  Mexican  conditions  and  enjoyed  the  confidence  and 
respect  of  the  New  Mexican  people. 

164.  The  "  Organic  Act  "  and  the  "  Kearny  Code."  - 
Kearny 's  Organic  Act  provided  a  complete  Territorial 
form  of  government,  granted  the  right  to  vote  to  all  free 
male  citizens,  and  fixed  the  first  Monday  in  August,  1847, 
as  the  date  of  the  first  election  for  Delegate  to  Congress 
and  members  of  the  Territorial  legislature.  But  the  newest 
feature  of  it  was  the  Bill  of  Rights,  so  characteristic  of 
English  liberty  everywhere,  guaranteeing  freedom  of 


THE   AMERICAN  OCCUPATION  139 

speech  and  the  press,  of  religion,  of  assembly  and  petition, 
as  well  as  the  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  and 
the  right  of  trial  by  jury. 

The  Kearny  Code  of  laws  for  the  new  Territory  em- 
braced many  old  and  well-known  customs,  but  contained 
the  unfortunate  provision  that  all  land  titles  held  under 
grants  from  the  Spanish  and  Mexican  governments  must 
be  registered  within  five  years,  or  forfeited.  Though 
meant  to  clear  up  titles,  it  aroused  much  suspicion  lest  it 
might  be  the  first  step  in  a  policy  of  seizing  the  best 
lands. 

165.  General  Kearny  Leaves  for  California.  —  With  the 
new  government  fully  established  and  everything  quiet, 
Kearny  set  out  for  California,  September  25.  A  few  miles 
below  Socorro  he  met  Kit  Carson,  the  great  pathfinder 
(sec.  133),  on  his  way  to  Washington  with  news  of  the  con- 
quest of  California  by  Stockton  and  Fremont.  Kearny 
sent  most  of  his  force  back  to  Albuquerque  and  proceeded 
westward  with  a  hundred  cavalry  and  a  small  pack  train. 
Knowing  that  Carson  had  just  come  over  the  Gila  Trail 
(sec.  131),  he  sent  the  messages  on  to  Washington  by  other 
hands  and  asked  the  great  pathfinder  to  turn  back  to  the 
coast  as  guide  for  the  American  troops.  Carson's  sense 
of  patriotic  duty  was  so  high  that  he  willingly  gave  up  his 
journey  to  Washington  and  the  visit  to  his  family  at  Taos, 
but  a  few  days  away,  and  turned  his  face  again  to  the 
western  mountains  and  the  Pacific. 

Kearny  crossed  the  Colorado  River  into  California 
November  25,  just  in  time  to  play  a  decisive  part  in  the 
Second  Conquest  of  the  great  Pacific  coast  province;  for 
the  Calif ornians  had  risen  in  revolt  and  undone  the  work 
of  the  preceding  season. 


140 


THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 


166.  Doniphan's  Navajo  Campaign.  —  Colonel  Alexan- 
der W.  Doniphan  was  left  in  charge  of  New  Mexico  with 
orders  to  march  southward  to  assist  General  Wool's  Army 
of  the  Center  (sec.  156)  in  the  conquest  of  Chihuahua  as 
soon  as  Colonel  Sterling  Price  arrived  with  his  Missouri 
Mounted  Volunteers  to  take  command  in  New  Mexico. 

In  the  meantime,  however,  the 
raids  of  the  thieving  Navajos 
became  so  bold  that  Doniphan 
had  to  make  a  campaign  against 
them  before  starting  to  Chi- 
huahua. 

Over  high  monutains  and 
through  deep  snows,  he  swept 
across  the  Continental  Divide 
and  into  the  very  heart  of  the 
Navajo  country  in  the  northwest 
and  forced  the  Navajos  to  make 
a  treaty  at  Bear  Spring,  in 
which  they  promised  to  restore 

prisoners  and  property  and  to  stop  their  plundering  raids 
—  a  mere  "  scrap  of  paper  "  to  be  broken  as  soon  as  the 

troops  were  gone. 

167.  The  March  to  Chihuahua.  —  Doniphan  was  now 
ready  to  start  southward.     The  traders'  caravan  (sec.  158) 
accompanied  him  down  the  Rio  Grande  over  the  same  route 
that  had  been  followed  by  the  Spanish  pioneers  and  their 
descendants  for  nearly  three  centuries. 

On  the  afternoon  of  Christmas  Day  (1846),  just  after 
they  went  into  camp  at  Brazito  (bra-se'to),  twelve  miles 
below  Dona  Ana,  they  were  attacked  by  a  force  of  twelve 
hundred  Mexicans.  Within  forty  minutes  the  enemy  were 


COLONEL  ALEXANDER  W. 
DONIPHAN 


THE   AMERICAN   OCCUPATION  141 

fleeing  southward  in  utter  rout.  Two  days  later,  without 
opposition,  the  Americans  occupied  the  old  Spanish  town  of 
El  Paso  del  Norte  (now  Juarez). 

168.  The    Capture    of    Chihuahua.  —  Here    Doniphan 
learned  that  General  Wool  had  abandoned  his  expedition 
against  Chihuahua  (sec.   158)  in  order  to  cooperate  with 
General  Taylor  in  the  campaign  around  Monterey.     Before 
marching  on  Chihuahua,  therefore,  he  sent  back  to  Santa 
Fe  for  reinforcements.     Meanwhile  the  merchants  rented 
store  rooms  and  did  a  thriving  business.     Their  loads  were 
lighter  when  the  march  was  resumed  in  February. 

At  Sacramento  Pass,  fifteen  miles  north  of  Chihuahua, 
Doniphan  found  the  Mexican  Army  of  the  North,  four 
thousand  strong,  intrenched  and  ready  to  dispute  t*he  pas- 
sage. Again  the  Americans  carried  everything  before 
them.  The  Mexicans  fled  toward  Durango.  Doniphan 
entered  Chihuahua,  March  i,  and  two  months  later  started 
east  to  join  General  Wool  at  Saltillo  (sal-te'yo).  But 
the  story  of  that  movement  would  carry  us  beyond  the 
limits  of  this  book. 

169.  Colonel  Cooke's  Wagon  Trail  to  California.  —  Thus 
far  we  have  had  no  record  of  any  overland  traffic  to  Cali- 
fornia except  by  pack  train.     General  Kearny,  however, 
left  Captain  Cooke,  now  promoted  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant 
colonel,  with  instructions  to  conduct  his  wagon  train  of 
supplies  through  to  the  coast.     Cooke  did  not  turn  west 
from  the  Rio  Grande  by  the  Copper  Mine  Trail,  as  Kearny 
had  done,  but  continued  down  to  the  region  of  Fort  Thorne 
in  the  Rincon  country  and  swung  away  to  the  southwest 
through  the  Mimbres  Valley  to  the  San  Pedro  River,  out 
through  Tucson  (too-son')  to  the  Gila  and  on  to  California. 

This    route    entirely    avoided    the    rough    mountainous 


142  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

country  of  the  Gila  Trail  a  short  distance  to  the  north,  and 
was  the  most  practical  caravan  route  to  the  coast  that  had 
yet  been  found.  It  opened  the  first  wagon  road  across  the 
continent  to  California  and  became  the  determining  factor 
in  the  Gadsden  Purchase  when  the  United  States  planned 
to  build  a  railroad  to  the  Pacific  a  few  years  later.  It  is 
closely  followed  to-day  by  the  Santa  Fe  Railroad  from 
Rincon  to  Deming ;  by  the  El  Paso  and  Southwestern  from 
Deming  by  Douglas  to  Benson,  Arizona;  and  by  the 
Southern  Pacific  from  Benson  by  Tuscon  to  the  Gila  and 
down  to  the  Colorado. 

GENERAL  READINGS 

H.  H.  BANCROFT,  History  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  408-428. 

P.  ST.  GEO.  COOKE,  The  Conquest  of  New  Mexico  and  California. 

J.  M.  CUTTS,  The  Conquest  of  California  and  New  Mexico. 

L.  B.  PRINCE,  A  Concise  History  of  New  Mexico,  178-182. 

B.  M.  READ,  Illustrated  History  of  New  Mexico,  415-445. 

J.  H.  SMITH,  The  War  with  Mexico.  2  vols.  (The  standard  authority  on 
the  Mexican  War.) 

R.  E.  TWITCHELL,  The  Leading  Facts  of  New  Mexican  History,  II,  194- 
228;  The  Military  Occupation  of  the  Territory  of  New  Mexico,  1846-1851, 
17-121. 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

1.  TEXAN  INDEPENDENCE  AND  ANNEXATION.     G.   P.   Garrison,   West- 
ward Extension,  1841-1850  ("American  Nation"  Series,  XVII),  85-156; 
R.  M.  McElroy,  The  Winning  of  the  Far  West,  1-85 ;  E.  D.  Adams,  British 
Interests  and  Activities  in  Texas,  1838-1846. 

2.  THE   SPIRIT  or   EXPANSION.    T.   Roosevelt,    Thomas  Hart  Benton 
("American  Statesmen"  Series),  23-68,  157-183. 

3.  PRELIMINARIES  or  THE  MEXICAN  WAR.     G.  P.  Garrison,  Same  as 
above,-  188-227;  R.  M.  McElroy,  Same  as  above,  130-176;  J.  H.  Smith, 
The  War  with  Mexico,  1, 117-155, 181-203. 

4.  THE  ARMY  OF  THE  WEST.    J.  H.  Smith,  Same  as  above.  I,  181-224; 
J.  T.  Hughes,  Doniphan's  Expedition,  21-83. 

5.  THE  OCCUPATION  OF  SANTA  FE.    J.  H.  Smith,  Same  as  above,  I,  184- 
297;  R.  M.  McElroy,  Same' as  above,  177-188;   J.  T.  Hughes,  Same  as 
above,  78-119. 


THE  AMERICAN  OCCUPATION  143 

6.  DONIPHAN'S  EXPEDITION.    J.  H.  Smith,  Same  as  above,  I,  298-314; 
J.  T.  Hughes,  Same  as  above,  143-203,  255-386. 

7.  THE  CALIFORNIA  CAMPAIGN.    J.  H.  Smith,  Same  as  above,  I,  315- 
346;  P.  St.  Geo.  Cooke,  The  Conquest  of  Ne     Mexico  and  California,  125- 
307;  R.  M.  McElroy,  Same  as  above,  188-202;  J.  T.  Hughes,  Same  as 
above,  120-142,  204-254. 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  What  caused  the  revolutionary  movements  in  Mexico?     Why  were 
the  Texans  natural  leaders? 

2.  In  what  way  were  Americans  concerned?     What  view  did  the  West- 
erners take? 

3.  What  was  the  chief  objection  to  the  annexation  of  Texas?    Why  did 
Polk's  annexation  policy  carry? 

4.  Why  was  not  the  Texan  boundary  peaceably  settled?     What  was 
the  "disputed  territory"? 

5.  Can  you  give  other  examples  of  the  "spirit  of  expansion"  in  American 
history? 

6.  How  did  the  Mexican  War  begin?     What  was  the  American  plan  of 
operations? 

7.  How  large  was  Kearny's  Army  of  the  West?     Trace  the  route  it  fol- 
lowed to  New  Mexico. 

8.  Relate  interesting  incidents  of  the  Occupation. 

9.  Outline  the  new  government  set  up  by  General  Kearny.     What  was 
the  "Organic  Act"?     The  "Kearny  Code"?     How    was  the  government 
improved? 

10.  Why  did  Kearny  go  on  to  California?     What  news  did  Kit  Carson 
bring?     Why  did  he  go  back  to  California? 

11.  What  were  Doniphan's  plans?     Why  was  he  delayed  in  starting 
south?     Give  an  account  of  his  Chihuahua  campaign. 

12.  Trace  Cooke's  wagon  trail  to  California.    Why  is  it  especially  im- 
portant? 


CHAPTER   X 


PROVISIONAL    GOVERNMENT,    1846-1851 

170.  Trouble  Brewing.  —  When  Colonel  Doniphan  left 
for  Chihuahua  in  the  fall  of  1846,  Colonel  Sterling  Price's 
forces   for   the   control  of   the   newly   acquired   Territory 
numbered  about  two  thousand  men,  mainly  undisciplined 
volunteers   with   little   or   no   military   experience.     Most 

of  them  were  stationed  at  Santa 
Fe ;  and  although  they  com- 
pleted Fort  Marcy  that  fall  and 
winter,  they  still  had  abundant 
time  for  getting  into  trouble  in 
the  town. 

The  situation  was  difficult  at 
best.  A  people  but  recently  con- 
quered was  now  under  military 
control.  The  land-owning  class 
was  suspicious  and  uneasy. 
Many  of  the  volunteers  who  had 
been  deserted  by  General  Armijo 
at  Apache  Canyon  were  lingering  around  Santa  Fe  to  see 
what  would  happen.  And  there  were  many  patriotic  New 
Mexicans  whose  hearts  burned  with  indignation  at  the 
thought  of  surrendering  their  country  without  striking  a 
blow  in  its  defense. 

171.  The   Revolutionary   Plot.  —  General   Kearny    and 
Colonel  Doniphan  were  not  out  of  the  Territory  before 

144 


GOVERNOR  CHARLES  BENT 


PROVISIONAL   GOVERNMENT 


145 


rumors  of  discontent  began  to  be  heard.  Early  in  Decem- 
ber the  leading  revolutionary  spirits  held  secret  meetings  in 
Santa  Fe  and  laid  their  plans  to  strike  a  sudden  blow 
that  would  shake  off  American  control  before  it  became 
too  firmly  rooted.  Certainly  it  was  not  treason  for  them 
to  rise  up  and  try  to  expel  the  foreign  enemy  in  time  of  war. 

Midnight  of  December  19  was  the  hour  set  for  a  general 
uprising  throughout  the  Territory.  In  Santa  Fe  the  peal 
of  the  parish  church  bell  was  to  be  the  signal  for  beginning 
the  bloody  work.  But  their  plans  were  not  all  ready  for 
the  nineteenth ;  and  the 
uprising  was  postponed 
until  Christmas  Eve, 
when  the  soldiers  would 
be  down  town  unarmed 
attending  the  dances  and 
other  festivities.  The 
delay  was  fatal.  The 
plot  leaked  out,  and  the 
leaders  fled  or  were  im- 
prisoned. 

172.  The  Outbreak  at 
Taos.  —  The  revolution- 
ary spirit,  however,  was 
not  dead.  It  was  wait- 
ing a  more  favorable 
opportunity.  That  opportunity  came  when  Governor 
Bent  went  to  his  home  in  Taos  in  January,  1847.  Taos, 
the  old  trading  center  on  the  northern  frontier  with  a 
population  from  everywhere,  had  a  liberal  quota  of  men 
whose  chief  means  of  livelihood  was  to  stir  up  trouble. 
No  sooner  had  the  Governor  reached  the  town  than  a 


A  MODERN  TAOS  TYPE 


146  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

few  of  these  desperate  characters  and  their  Indian  allies 
began  to  lay  their  plans  for  foul  business.  Pablo  Montoya, 
Manuel  Cortes,  and  a  Taos  Indian  named  Tomasito  (to- 
ma-se'to)  Romero  were  the  leaders.  The  Pueblos,  resent- 
ful at  being  punished  in  the  new  courts  and  fearing  that  the 
Americans  were  going  to  take  their  tribal  lands  away  from 
them,  fell  easy  victims  to  the  plot. 

During  the  early  morning  hours  of  January  19  a  mob 
of  Indians  came  down  from  the  pueblo  of  Taos  and  were 
joined  by  the  revolutionists  of  the  town.  They  broke 
down  the  door  of  Governor  Bent's  house,  filled  his  body 
with  arrows,  and  scalped  him  alive.  Then  they  murdered 
five  others  and  wound  up  their  orgy  of  crime  by  sacking 
the  houses  of  the  American  residents  of  Taos,  many  of 
whom  fled  for  their  lives. 

173.  The  Revolt  Spreads.  —  The  same  day   that  the 
Governor  was  murdered  seven  men  were  killed  and  one  was 
wounded  at  Turley's  Mill,  twelve  miles  northwest  of  Taos, 
and  two  others  were  killed  a  little  farther  north.     The 
next  day  at  Mora  a  band  under  Manuel  Cortes,  who  had 
fled  from  Taos,  robbed  and  shot  a  company  of  eight  or 
nine  traders  on  their  way  to  the  Missouri  frontier. 

The  north,  particularly  the  Taos  Valley,  began  organiz- 
ing a  revolutionary  'army  to  march  on  Santa  Fe.  Mes- 
sengers rushed  away  to  the  settlements  down  the  Rio 
Grande,  urging  the  people  to  rise  in  revolt. 

174.  Colonel  Price  Marches  on  Taos.  —  But  quickness 
of  action  was  not  all  on  one  side.     Swift  couriers  carried 
the  news  over  the  snow-covered  mountains  to  Santa  Fe ; 
and  on  January  23  Colonel  Price  started  for  Taos  with 
three  hundred  and  fifty-three  men,  including   St.  Vrain's 
company    of    Santa    Fe    volunteers.     Among    them   were 


PROVISIONAL   GOVERNMENT  147 

Manuel  Chaves  and  Nicolas  Pino,  both  prominent  New 
Mexicans  who  had  been  arrested  the  month  before  for 
taking  part  in  the  earlier  plots  at  Santa  Fe,  but  who  now 
set  themselves  sternly  against  the 
murderous  movement  at  Taos. 

At  La  Canada  and  again  at 
Embudo  on  the  way  northward 
Colonel  Price  met  the  insurgents 
in  hot  skirmishes  and  put  them 
to  rout.  He  reached  Taos  on 
February  3  and  on  the  following 
morning  surrounded  the  pueblo, 
in  which  the  insurgents  had  taken 
refuge,  and  began  a  steady  can- 
nonade. By  the  middle  of  the 
afternoon  they  were  in  flight  CoLONEL  STERLING  PRICE 
toward  the  mountains.  Next  morning  the  Indians  delivered 
Tomasito  Romero  to  Colonel  Price  and  begged  for  peace. 

176.  The  Revolt  Crushed.  —  Tomasito  was  shot  by  a 
soldier  in  the  guard  house ;  Pablo  Montoya,  the  ringleader, 
was  court-martialed  and  shot;  Pablo  Chaves  had  been 
killed  in  battle  ;  fourteen  other  conspirators  were  convicted 
and  executed  for  the  murder  of  Governor  Bent. 

Manuel  Cortes  alone  of  the  leading  conspirators  was  still 
at  large.  He  continued  his  bandit  operations  on  the  east 
side  of  the  mountains  throughout  the  summer.  Chance 
engagements  occurred  at  Mora,  Las  Vegas,  Red  River 
Canyon,  and  Anton  Chico.  But  the  revolt  had  failed, 
and  one  lesson  was  clear :  American  control  was  an  estab- 
lished fact. 

176.  Civil  Government  under  Military  Control.  —  The 
excitement  caused  by  the  uprising,  however,  threw  the 


148  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

whole  government  of  the  Territory  into  the  hands  of  the 
army  and  left  hardly  more  than  the  name  of  .civil  govern- 
ment for  the  next  four  years. 

Governor  Bent  was  succeeded  by  Donaciano  Vigil.  The 
first  and  only  session  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  author- 
ized by  Kearny's  Organic  Act  (sec.  164)  was  held  in  Santa 
Fe  in  December  (1847).  Its  acts  were  approved  by  the 
governor  and  by  Colonel  Price  as  commander  of  the  Military 
Department.  The  will  of  the  commanding  officer  was  law. 
And  when  Governor  Vigil  went  out  of  office  in  October, 
1848,  Colonel  John  M.  Washington,  commander  of  the 
Department,  assumed  the  functions  of  civil  and  military 
governor.  Colonel  John  Munroe,  his  successor  a  year  later, 
held  the  same  position  until  the  organization  of  the  Terri- 
torial government,  March  3,  1851.  That  such  a  government 
should  enjoy  any  great  popularity  was  too  much  to  expect. 

177.  The  Close  of  the  Mexican  War.  —  While  these 
events  were  taking  place  in  New  Mexico,  General  Taylor 
had  overwhelmed  Santa  Anna  at  Buena  Vista  (bwa/na 
ves'ta),  and  General  Scott  had  fought  his  way  to  the 
heart  of  the  Republic  and  captured  Mexico  City  itself. 
The  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  signed  February  2,  1848, 
and  ratified  May  30,  provided  (i)  that  Mexico  should 
give  up  all  claim  to  territory  east  of  the  Rio  Grande  and 
cede  New  Mexico  and  Upper  California  to  the  United 
States ;  (2)  that  the  United  States  should  pay  to  Mexico 
$15,000,000  besides  paying  off  $3,250,000  of,  the  claims  of 
American  citizens  against  Mexico  (sec.  152) ;  (3)  that  the 
inhabitants  of  the  ceded  territory  should  become  American 
citizens  unless  they  moved  out  or  formally  declared  within 
a  year  their  intention  to  retain  their  Mexican  citizenship ; 
and  (4)  that  they  should  be  "  admitted  at  the  proper  time 


PROVISIONAL  GOVERNMENT  149 

(to  be  judged  by  the  Congress  of  the  United  States)  to  the 
enjoyment  of  all  the  rights  of  citizens  of  the  United  States." 

178.  The  Conventions  of  1848  and  1849.  —  A  conven- 
tion of  delegates  called  by  the  Legislative  Assembly  of 
December,  1847  (sec-  X7^)?  f°r  the  following  February  did 
not  meet  until  October.     In  a  four  days'  session  at  Santa 
Fe  it  protested  against  the  Texan  claim  to  the  east  side  of 
the  Rio  Grande  (sees.  139,  189)  and  the  introduction  of 
slavery,  and  petitioned  Congress  for  the  speedy  organiza- 
tion of  a  Territorial  government  "  purely  civil  in  its  char- 
acter."    Reaching  Washington  at  a  time  when  the  great 
anti-slavery  agitation  had  Congress  in  its  grip,  this  petition 
secured  no  results. 

But  the  war  wa$  over,  and  the  people  were  restless  under 
the  continuance  of  war-time  government.  Another  con- 
vention, therefore,  met  in  September,  1849,  adopted  a 
regular  plan  of  Territorial  civil  government,  and  sent 
Hugh  N.  Smith  as  Delegate  to  Congress  to  urge  the 
approval  of  the  plan.  If  that  proved  impossible,  he  was 
to  work  for  statehood.  But  Congress  denied  him  a  seat, 
and  another  hope  was  blasted. 

179.  The  First  Political  Parties.  —  Out  of -this  agitation 
;  for  organized  civil  government  the  first  political  parties 

developed.  One  sought  the  admission  of  New  Mexico 
)  as  a  State ;  the  other  wanted  it  organized  as  a  Territory. 
Consequently  they  were  known  as  the  "State  party" 
and  the  "  Territorial  party."  In  general,  the  leaders  of  the 
native  New  Mexicans  favored  statehood,  while  the  Ameri- 
can pioneer  element  wanted  a  Territorial  organization. 
The  reason  for  this  division  is  obvious.  All  important 
officials  in  a  Territory  are  appointed  by  the  President ; 
in  a  State  they  are  elected  by  the  people. 


THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 


180.  The    First    Statehood    Movement.  —  The    State 
party  was  aroused  to  action  in  the  summer  of  1849  by  the 
news  that  President  Taylor  desired  to  see  New  Mexico 
admitted  as  a  State  so  that  her  people  might  settle  the 
slavery   question   for   themselves.     He   had   the   soldier's 
directness  of   action  and  was  disgusted  with  the  slavery 
controversy  that  was  preventing  proper  legislation  for  the 
newly  acquired  territory.     Slavery  in  high,  semi-arid  New 
Mexico   was   prohibited   by    "  an   ordinance   of   nature," 
anyway. 

181.  The    Constitutional     Convention     of     1850.  —  In 
May,  1850,  therefore,  a  constitutional  convention  met  in 


NEW  MEXICO  AS  BOUNDED  BY  THE  "STATE"  CONSTITUTION  OF  1850 

Santa  Fe  and  framed  a  constitution  for  the  State  of  New 
Mexico.  The  contest  for  ratification  was  a  drawn  battle 
between  the  military  party  then  in  control  and  the  people 
seeking  self-government.  The  constitution  itself  was  an 
excellent  one,  defining  the  boundaries  as  beginning  at  El 


PROVISIONAL  GOVERNMENT  151 

Paso  (now  Juarez)  and  running  east  to  the  hundredth 
meridian,  north  to  the  Arkansas,  up  that  river  to  its  source, 
thence  to  where  the  one  hundred  and  eleventh  meridian 
crosses  the  Colorado  River,  south  to  the  Gila,  and  back  to 
El  Paso  on  the  international  boundary  —  as  near  a  proper 
historic  boundary  for  the  Spanish  and  Mexican  province 
of  New  Mexico  as  can  be  found  anywhere.  Over  all  this 
vast  region  restless  New  Mexican  pioneers  and  adventurers 
had  hunted,  prospected,  trapped,  and  fought  Indians  for 
three  centuries.  Historically  it  was  their  country.  And 
many  portions  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  as  far  north  as 
Wyoming  were  probably  well  known  to  them. 

182.  The  "State"  Government  of  1850.  —  The  new 
constitution  was  ratified,  June  20,  by  the  decisive  vote  of 
6,771  to  39.  William  S.  Messervy  was  elected  Delegate  to 
Congress,  and  a  legislature  and  State  officers  were  chosen 
at  the  same  time.  Henry  Connelly,  a  Kentuckian,  who 
had  been  engaged  in  trade  at  Chihuahua  since  1828,  and 
who  had  recently  transferred  his  business  interests  to  New 
Mexico,  was  elected  governor  with  Manuel  Alvarez  (al'va- 
ras)  as  lieutenant  governor.  But  Connelly  was  absent  in 
the  States,  and  Alvarez  took  office  as  acting  governor. 
The  legislature  met,  July  i,  elected  Francis  A.  Cunningham 
and  Richard  H.  Weigh tman  United  States  Senators,  and 
drew  up  a  memorial  to  Congress,  denouncing  the  military 
officials  and  their  high-handed  methods  of  controlling  the 
government,  and  asking  admission  as  a  State. 

This  new  "  State  "  government,  however,  soon  came  to 
grief,  as  had  the  effort  at  "  Territorial  "  government  the 
preceding  year.  Colonel  John  Munroe,  commander  of  the 
Department,  forbade  the  exercise  of  any  authority  under 
the  new  government  until  it  was  recognized  by  Congress. 


152  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

"  Governor  "  Alvarez  was  powerless.  Moreover,  when  the 
constitution  reached  Washington  that  fall,  the  Com- 
promise of  1850  was  in  its  final  stages,  and  the  Organic 
Act  for  the  Territory  of  New  Mexico  (sec.  185)  was  signed 
by  the  President  the  very  day  this  constitution  reached 
the  Senate.  The  first  effort  to  secure  statehood  had  failed. 

183.  Beginning  of  the  Overland  Mail.  —  On  August  25, 
1846,  one  week  after  the  occupation  of  Santa  Fe,  General 
Kearny   started   swift   riders   across   the  plains   to   Inde- 
pendence, Missouri,  bearing  the  romantic  story  of  the  march 
to  New  Mexico  and  the  bloodless  conquest  of  the  country. 
This  was  the  official  beginning  of  the  overland  mail  be- 
tween Santa  Fe  and  Independence,  or  Fort  Leavenworth, 
carried  by  daring  horsemen  and  stage  drivers  more  than  a 
dozen  years  before  the  first  ride  on  the  trail  of  the  better 
known  "  Pony  Express  "  farther  north.     Until  the  close 
of  the  war  the  service  was  irregular,  each  mail  being  carried 
under  special  contract  at  a  cost  of  about  $600  for  the  round 
trip    to    Fort   Leavenworth   and   back   to   Santa   Fe.     A 
similar  special-contract  mail  service  to  California  was  soon 
started.     In   March,    1848,    the   go\ernment  paid  $1,000 
for  a  trip  to  the  coast  and  back. 

184.  The    Coming    of    the    Stagecoach.  —  In    1849    a 
regular  stage  line  was  established  between  Independence 
and  Santa  Fe,  making  the  round  trip  once  a  month  and 
carrying  the  mail  by  yearly  contract.     The  passenger  fare 
was  $250  each  way,  including  fifty  pounds  of   baggage, 
with  a  charge  of  fifty  cents  a  pound  for  excess  baggage. 
In  the  fifties  the  fare  was  reduced  to  $150.     Though  irregu- 
lar in  the  early  years,  this  service  was  later  increased  to 
once  a  week  and  later  still  to  three  times  a  week.     Finally 
in  1868  daily  service  was  undertaken.     Kansas  City  became 


PROVISIONAL   GOVERNMENT 


153 


the  eastern  end  of  the  line  about  1850  and  continued  so 
most  of  the  time  until  the  railroad  started  west  and  the 
end  of  the  stage  line  moved  westward  with  it. 

The  journey  of  seven  hundred  and  seventy-five  miles  was 
planned  to  take  about  two  weeks  and  to  be  made  without 


THE  OVERLAND  STAGE  CROSSING  A  MOUNTAIN  PASS 

From  Marvels  of  the  New  West 

any  stops  except  at  the  relay  stations  along  the  trail  to 
get  fresh  horses  and  a  hurried  meal  of  meat,  bread,  and  black 
coffee  here  and  there.  Otherwise  the  passengers  would 
take  only  such  rest  and  sleep  as  they  could  get  while  the 
huge,  clumsy  stagecoach  rumbled  along  over  the  plains 


154  THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

and  mountains.  Though  the  service  was  generally  much 
slower  than  this,  travel  to  and  from  the  States  was  strenu- 
ous business. 

The  great  stagecoach  carried  ten  passengers  and  the 
conductor,  or  messenger,  in  charge  of  the  mail  and  valuable 
express.  "  Freighting  "  over  the  Trail,  too,  was  a  business 
in  itself,  and  one  of  large  proportions. 

GENERAL  READINGS 

H.  H.  BANCROFT,  History  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  428-467. 

P.  ST.  GEO.  COOKE,  The  Conquest  of  New  Mexico  and  California,  111-124. 

L.  B.  PRINCE,  A  Concise  History  of  New  Mexico,  182-190. 

B.  M.  READ,  Illustrated  History  of  New  Mexico,  445-463. 

R.  E.  TWITCHELL,  The  Leading  Facts  of  New  Mexican  History,  II,  228- 
278;  The  Military  Occupation  of  the  Territory  of  New  Mexico,  1846-1851, 
122-199. 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

1.  THE  TREATY  OF  GUADALUPE  HIDALGO.    J.  H.  Smith,  Tlie  War  with 
Mexico,  II,   120-139,  210-252. 

2.  EFFORTS  TOWARD  CIVIL  GOVERNMENT.    L.  B.  Prince,  New   Mexico's 
Struggle  for  Statehood,  3-23;  W.  W.  H.  Davis,  El  Gringo,  108-113. 

3.  TRAVEL  ACROSS  THE  PLAINS.    W.  W.  H.  Davis,  El  Gringo,  13-56. 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  How  large  was  the  American  force  under  Colonel  Price?     Would  you 
expect  trouble  between  the  Americans  and  the  New  Mexicans?     Why? 

2.  What  were  the  plans  of  the  discontented?     Why  act  quickly? 

3.  Was  Taos  a  natural  place  for  such  trouble  to  start?     Why? 

4.  Tell  about  the  murder  of  Governor  Bent  and  the  spread  of  the  revolt. 

5.  What  measures  did  Colonel  Price  take  to  put  down  the  disturbance? 

6.  What  permanent  effects  did  the  revolt  have?     Good  or  bad? 

7.  What  were  the  important  provisions  of  the  treaty  of    Guadalupe 
Hidalgo?    Which  of  them  affected  New  Mexico? 

8.  What  was  the  purpose  of  the  Conventions  of  1848  and  1849? 

9.  What  were  the  first  political  parties?    What  was  the  object  of  each? 
Why  the  difference? 

10.  Give  an  account  of  the  first  statehood  movement.     Why  did  the 
"  State"  government  of  1850  not  succeed  ? 

11.  Give  an  account  of  the  beginning  of  the  overland  mail  to  the  States 
and  to  California;   of  a  journey  on  the  overland  stagecoach. 


CHAPTER  XI 

BEGINNINGS    OF   THE   TERRITORY,    1861-1861 

185.  The  Organic  Act.  —  September  9,  1850,  the  Presi- 
dent signed  the  bill  which  created  for  New  Mexico  a  com- 
plete Territorial  civil  government  to  take  the  place  of  the 
hated,  half -military,  half-civil  organization  that  had  held 
sway    since    the    American    Occupation.     The    governor, 
secretary,    judges,    United    States    attorney,    and    United 
States  marshal  were  to  be  appointed  by  the  President  for 
terms  of  four  years.     The  Legislative  Assembly,  consisting 
of  a  Council  of  thirteen  members  and  a  House  of  Represen- 
tatives of  twenty-six  members,  was  to  be  elected  by  popular 
vote.     The  salaries  of  all  these  officials  were  to  be  paid  by 
the  United  States.     The  governor's  veto  on  legislation  was 
absolute  until  the  Organic  Act  was  amended  in  1868  to 
allow  the  legislature  by  a  two-thirds  vote  to  pass  a  measure 
over  his  veto. 

All  county  and  other  local  officers  were  to  be  chosen 
in  such  a  manner  as  might  be  prescribed  by  Territorial 
laws.  The  capital  was  to  be  located  in  the  same  way. 
The  salaries  of  all  these  officers  of  local  government  author- 
ized by  the  legislature  were  to  be  provided  for  by  taxation. 

186.  Governor  Calhoun.  — On  March  3,  1851,  James  S. 
Calhoun   was   inaugurated    as   first   governor    under    the 
Organic  Act.     He  was  a  Georgian  and  a  kinsman  of  the 
famous    statesman,    John    C.    Calhoun.     He    had    served 
with   distinction   under   General   Taylor   in   the   Mexican 

155 


156 


THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 


War  and  had  risen  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant  colonel.     Hence 
he   had   been   appointed   United  States  Indian  Agent  at 

Santa  Fe  when  General 
Taylor  became  Presi- 
dent. Two  facts  marked 
him  as  a  good  choice 
for  governor:  first,  his 
excellent  record  in  the 
difficult  position  of  In- 
dian Agent  since  July, 
1849;  secondly,  his  sym- 
pathetic support  of  the 
native  New  Mexican 
people  against  the  In- 
dians, on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  military  author- 
ities and  other  foreigners 
on  the  other,  during  the 
trying  period  of  provis- 
ional government  (Chapter  X). 

187.  The  First  Territorial  Legislature.  —  In  the  general 
election  called  by  Governor  Calhoun  that  spring  Captain 
Richard  H.  Weightman,  who  had  come  to  New  Mexico 
in  charge  of  a  battery  of  Missouri  light  artillery  under 
General  Kearny,  was  elected  first  Delegate  to  Congress. 
A  legislature  representative  of  both  Spanish  and  Anglo- 
American  elements  was  elected  at  the  same  time. 

June  2,  1851,  the  legislature  met  in  the  old  Palace  of  the 
Governors  and  elected  Father  Antonio  Jose  Martinez, 
of  Taos,  president  of  the  Council,  and  Theodore D.  Whea ton, 
a  Taos  lawyer,  speaker  of  the  House.  It  fixed  the  capital 
at  Santa  Fe ;  divided  the  territory  into  three  judicial 


GOVERNOR  JAMES  S.  CALHOUN 


BEGINNINGS   OF  THE   TERRITORY 


157 


districts;  passed  a  general  election  law  under  which  all 
male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age,  except  Negroes 
and  soldiers,  could  vote ;  and  provided  for  the  continuance 
of  all  local  laws  that  were  in  harmony  with  the  Federal 
Constitution  and  the  Organic  Act,  except  the  hated  land- 
registry  law  of  the  Kearny  Code  (sec.  164). 

At  its  second  session,  beginning  in  the  following  Decem- 
ber, it  divided  the  Territory  into  nine   counties  —  Taos, 


FIRST  DIVISION  OF  THE  TERRITORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO  INTO 
COUNTIES,  1851-1852 

Rio  Arriba,  San  Miguel,  Santa  Fe,  Santa  Ana,  Bernalillo, 
Valencia,  Socorro,  and  Dona  Ana  —  and  apportioned 
members  of  the  Council  and  House  of  Representatives 
among  them.  Justice  of  the  peace  courts  were  then  estab- 
lished;  but  singularly  enough,  both  sessions  of  this  first 
legislature  came  and  went  without  the  passage  of  any 
tax  law. 

188.    Financial  Troubles.  —  Yet  there  was  a  deficit  of 


158 


THE  HISTORY  OE  NEW   MEXICO 


$31,562  left  by  the  old  military  government,  and  every 
creditor  of  the  Territory  was  receiving  a  warrant  on  an 
empty  treasury.  Nor  was  there  any  regular  source  of 
public  revenue.  General  Kearny  in  1846  had  abolished  the 
old  abuse  of  having  every  kind  of  legal  document  written  on 
stamped  paper  sold  by  the  government  at  eight  dollars  a 
sheet.  Then  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  of  peace,  May 
30,  1848,  stopping  the  collection  of  tariff  duties  on  goods 
coming  from  the  States,  cut  the  last  financial  prop  from 


FORT  BLISS  IN  THE  FIFTIES 

under  the  provisional  government  and  left  it  three  years  to 
run  on  nothing.  Not  until  1854  did  Congress  provide  for 
paying  the  salaries  of  the  officers  of  the  so-called  "  civil  " 
government  under  the  Kearny  Code  from  1846  to  1851. 

189.   Settlement  of  the  Texas-New  Mexico  Boundary.  - 
The  Organic  Act  which  created  the  Territorial  government 
also  settled  the  long-standing  controversy  with  Texas  over 
the  region  east  of  the  Rio  Grande  (sec.  139).     The  claim  of 
Texas  had  always   been   shadowy  and   uncertain.      The 


BEGINNINGS   OF  THE   TERRITORY  159 

claim  of  the  New  Mexicans  who  had  occupied  the  territory 
for  two  centuries  and  a  half  was  definite  and  beyond  reason- 
able doubt.  Now  that  both  were  children  of  the  great 
Republic  it  was  the  duty  of  the  government  to  settle  the 
quarrel  justly.  Congress,  therefore,  organized  the  New 
Mexican  lands  east  of  the  Rio  Grande  as  a  part  of  the 
Territory  and  paid  Texas  $10,000,000  to  give  up  her 
claim.  This  arrangement  had  the  virtue  of  doing  justice 
to  New  Mexico  by  giving  her  most  of  her  ancient  territory 
and  at  the  same  time  "  saving  the  face  "  of  Texas ;  for 
most  of  the  $10,000,000  was  really  in  payment  for  public 
property  of  the  Texan  Republic,  that  had  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  United  States  at  the  time  of  annexation. 

190.  Neglect  and  Discontent.  —  When  Governor  Cal- 
houn  took  the  oath  of  office  in  March,  1851,  the  condi- 
tion of  public  affairs  was  very  unsatisfactory.  Though  the 
Territory  had  a  population  of  60,000,'  the  treasury  was 
empty,  salaries  were  unpaid,  and  Indian  raids  were  un- 
checked. The  anti-slavery  agitation  had  caused  Congress 
to  leave  New  Mexico  too  long  under  military  control  - 
more  than  three  years  after  the  signing  of  the  treaty  of 
peace.  Any  government  that  is  irregular  and  uncertain 
is  for  that  reason  unpopular ;  and  military  rule  is  the  most 
universally  hated  of  all.  Much  discontent  remained,  and 
many  misunderstandings  had  to  be  straightened  out  before 
the  new  government  could  feel  secure. 

For  this  discontent  the  newly  established  civil  govern- 
ment was  only  a  partial  remedy ;  for  Territorial  govern- 
ment is  never  popular  self-government.  It  is  essentially 
"  carpetbagger  "  in  nature ;  that  is,  it  is  government  by 
outsiders.  Not  one  of  the  newly  appointed  officials  was  a 
native  New  Mexican.  They  were  all  "  from  the  States," 


i6o 


THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 


and  some  of  them  did  not  arrive  until  beyond  midsummer. 
Such  conditions  were  not  likely  to  increase  the  popularity 
of  the  new  government. 

191.  Military  Interference.  —  To  make  matters  worse, 
Colonel  E.  V.  Sumner,  the  new  commander  of  the  Military 
Department,  took  genuine  delight  in  handicapping  Gov- 
ernor Calhoun  in  his  dealing  with  the  Indians.  Not  only 


FORT  DEFIANCE  IN  THE  FIFTIES 

would  he  give  the  governor  no  effective  cooperation  against 
them,  but  he  tried  to  keep  Calhoun  from  organizing  New 
Mexican  volunteers  to  pursue  the  marauders.  Slowly 
and  grudgingly  did  the  military  authorities  give  up  the 
control  they  had  enjoyed  for  more  than  five  years. 

192.  New  Military  Posts.  —  On  Colonel  Sumner's  arrival 
in  the  summer  of  1851  he  broke  up  the  post  at  Santa  Fe, 
"  that  sink  of  vice  and  extravagance,"  and  made  his  head- 
quarters at  Fort  Union,  a  new  post  which  he  established  on 


BEGINNINGS  OF  THE   TERRITORY  161 

the  Mora  River.  His  next  move  was  to  Albuquerque, 
and  within  a  year  he  was  back  at  Santa  Fe  to  stay.  During 
that  fall  (1851)  he  established  Fort  Fillmore  in  the  Mesilla 
Valley  and  Fort  Conrad  (later  Fort  Craig)  just  south  of 
Valverde  to  protect  the  lower  Rio  Grande  Valley.  At  the 
Santa  Rita  copper  mines  he  built  Fort  Webster  to  control 
the  southwestern  Apaches ;  and  out  in  the  Navajo  country 
he  built  Fort  Defiance. 

But  with  all  these  posts  and  with  troops  stationed  at 
other  points,  the  Indians  were  still  uncontrolled.  They 
could  move  more  swiftly  than  the  troops.  The  fighting 
was  particularly  bitter  in  1858,  and  in  1860  the  Navajos 
grew  so  bold  as  to  attack  Fort  Defiance  itself. 

193.  Commercial  Development.  —  The  common  im- 
pression that  the  overland  trade  from  the  Missouri  frontier 
came  to  an  end  with  the  American  Occupation  is  entirely 
false.  In  the  romance  of  the  westward  march  of  General 
Kearny's  army  and  the  gold-seeking  Forty-niners  on  their 
way  to  the  Eldorado  of  the  Pacific,  it  must  not  be  forgot- 
ten that  the  Santa  Fe  trade  was  hardly  beyond  its  in- 
fancy. The  biggest  year  prior  to  1846  had  only  reached 
the  $450,000  mark. 

But  with  the  American  Occupation,  arbitrary  restrictions 
ceased,  military  protection  for  the  caravans  became  a 
regular  feature,  and  there  was  more  freighting  to  do  than 
ever  before.  After  1846  the  freight  charge  alone  (about 
$11.75  Per  hundred)  on  government  supplies  from  Fort 
Leavenworth  to  Santa  Fe  ran  into  the  millions  of  dollars 
each  year,  —  several  times  the  value  of  all  the  goods  brought 
in  any  year  prior  to  the  Occupation,  —  and  the  mercantile 
caravan  increased  accordingly.  Besides  the  New  Mexican 
trade  to  be  supplied,  there  were  now  increasing  numbers 


162  THE  HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

of  Americans  wishing  to  buy  the  American  goods  to  which 
they  were  accustomed. 

194.  The  Forty-Niners.  —  Over  this  same  old  Santa  Fe 
Trail  from  the  Missouri  River  came  thousands  of  gold 
seekers  on  their  way  to  California  in  the  summer  of  1849. 
They  went  down  the  river  by  Albuquerque  and  followed 
Cooke's  wagon  road  (sec.  169)  toward  the  Pacific.     Still 
other  caravans  came  through  Texas,  crossed  the  Rio  Grande 
near  Mesilla,  and  went  westward  over  the  same  route. 

195.  The  Mexican  Boundary  Dispute.  —  Much  of  this 
caravan  route,  however,  was  through  disputed   territory. 
Inaccuracies  in  the  map  referred  to  in  the  treaty  of  Guada- 
lupe  Hidalgo  left  room  for  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
proper    boundary    between    southern    New    Mexico    and 
northern  Mexico  from  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  Gila.     Ameri- 
can and  Mexican  commissioners  to  survey  and  mark  the 
boundary  met  at  El  Paso  and  agreed  on  a  starting  point  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande  opposite  the  town  of 
Dona  Ana,  in  latitude  32°  22'  north.     From  there  the  line 
was  to  run  a  hundred  and  eighty  miles  west  and  then  north 
to  the  Gila.     But  in  November  (1850),  after  about  ninety 
miles  of  this  line  had  been  surveyed,  Lieutenant  William 
H.  Emory  came  as  the  new  surveyor  for  the  American 
commission  and  refused  to  proceed  with  the  survey  unless 
the  Mexicans  would  agree  to  a  line  half  a  degree  (about 
thirty-four    and    a   half   miles)    farther    south.     They    of 
course  refused,  and  the  joint  survey  ended,  leaving  a  bound- 
ary dispute  to  be  settled  later. 

196.  The  Founding  of  Mesilla.  —  Meanwhile  the  new 
town  of  Mesilla  (ma-se'ya)  had  been  settled  in  the  dis- 
puted territory.     Dona  Ana  was  acquiring  a  considerable 
American  population,  largely  from  Texas.     Many  of  the 


1,1  (,I.\M\(,S    OF   THE   TERRITORY  163 

native  Mexican  residents,  dissatisfied  with  the  situation, 
decided  to  seek  homes  under  Mexican  jurisdiction.  In 
March,  1850,  therefore,  they  moved  across  to  the  west 
side  of  the  river  to  the  Mesilla  Grant,  a  few  miles  south 
of  Dona  Ana.1  Population  grew  rapidly,  with  a  liberal 
sprinkling  of  Americans.  The  governor  of  New  Mexico 
prepared  to  take  possession  of  the  region ;  Chihuahua  was 
ready  to  resist  by  force  of  arms. 

197.  Railway  Route  to  the  Pacific.  —  Events  taking 
place  far  away,  however,  were  to  have  the  determining 
influence  on  the  boundary  settlement.  California  had 
been  acquired  by  the  United  States  at  the  same  time  as 
New  Mexico.  Gold  had  been  discovered  there  in  the  spring 
of  1848.  Tens  of  thousands  of  Americans  had  flocked  to 
that  country  in  the  mad  rush  of  gold  seekers  that  crossed 
our  great  western  plains  in  the  summer  of  1849.  Each 
succeeding  year  saw  its  new  line  of  westward-moving 
caravans.  In  1850  California  became  a  State  of  the 
Union.  There  was  another  American  civilization  growing 
up  on  the  western  coast,  and  the  desire  for  union  was 
strong.  The  government  at  Washington  was  quick  to 
see  the  importance  of  the  coast  region  and  to  recognize  the 
necessity  for  providing  means  of  travel  and  transporta- 
tion across  the  continent  —  for  the  building  of  a  great 
transcontinental  railroad  to  the  Pacific.  That  subject, 
in  fact,  had  been  agitated  by  a  few  far-seeing  men  for  more 
than  fifteen  years,  even  before  the  United  States  had  any 
possessions  on  the  coast.  In  the  beginning  of  the  fifties 
Senator  Gwin,  of  California,  kept  it  constantly  before  the 
public  mind. 

Such  a  road  should,  of  course,  be  wholly  through  Ameri- 

1  The  Rio  Grande  moved  to  its  present  channel  west  of  Mesilla  during  the  floods  of  1863 
and  1865. 


1 64  THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

can  territory.  But  you  will  remember  that  when  Colonel 
Cooke  started  from  Santa  Fe  to  California  with  his  wagon 
train,  in  1846,  he  found  it  impossible  to  follow  General 
Kearny  directly  west  from  the  Rio  Grande  by  way  of  the 
Santa  Rita  copper  mines  and  the  Gila  Valley,  and  had  to 
go  farther  southwest  through  the  Deming  country  (sec.  169). 
The  southern  caravan  route  to  California,  in  1849  and 
after,  came  from  San  Antonio,  by  way  of  El  Paso  and 
Mesilla,  and  followed  the  same  route  westward,  —  part 
of  the  way  through  the  disputed  territory,  but  most  of 
the  way  through  the  undisputed  Mexican  State  of  Sonora. 
The  surveys  made  by  the  War  Department  in  the  early 
fifties  showed  that  the  "  most  practical  and  economical 
route  "  to  the  Pacific  was  over  this  same  trail  through 
Mexican  territory.  The  United  States  must  have  that 
region  without  delay. 

198.  The  Gadsden  Purchase.  —  The  President,  there- 
fore, sent  James  Gadsden,  of  South  Carolina,  who  had 
long  been  interested  in  the  project  for  a  Pacific  railroad, 
to  Mexico  as  a  special  commissioner  with  instructions 
to  settle  the  boundary  dispute  by  buying  the  region  west 
of  the  Rio  Grande  and  south  of  the  Gila,  including  the 
proposed  railway  route  and  all  of  the  disputed  territory. 
On  December  30,  1853,  Mr.  Gadsden  and  the  Mexican 
government  signed  a  treaty  of  purchase  by  which  the 
United  States  paid  Mexico  $10,000,000  for  all  of  the  terri- 
tory lying  north  of  a  line  beginning  in  the  Rio  Grande 
River  north  of  El  Paso  in  31°  47'  north  latitude,  running 
west  one  hundred  miles,  then  south  to  31°  20'  north  latitude, 
then  west  to  the  one  hundred  and  eleventh  meridian,  then 
northwest  to  the  Colorado  River  twenty  miles  below 
the  mouth  of  the  Gila  —  the  present  southern  boundary 


BEGINNINGS  OF  THE  TERRITORY 


165 


of  the  United  States  from  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  Colorado. 
The  territory  thus  acquired  (45,000  square  miles  besides 
the  disputed  region)  was  annexed  to  New  Mexico  and 
made  a  part  of  Dona  Ana  County. 

199.   The  Overland  Mail  to  the  Pacific.  —  Through  this 
region  was  soon  started  one  of  the  most  characteristic 


INDIANS  ATTACKING  THE  OVERLAND  STAGE 

From  Marvels  of  the  New  West 

American  enterprises  on  record.  In  the  summer  of  1857 
the  San  Antonio  and  San  Diego  Mail  began  to  travel 
twice  a  month  each  way  from  the  Texas  town  to  southern 
California,  with  only  the  El  Paso  settlement,  Mesilla,  and 
Tucson  —  and  savage  Indians  —  to  break  the  monotony 
of  the  intervening  deserts.  There  was  no  road  most  of 
the  way,  and  the  mail  was  carried  on  horseback  at  first. 
The  first  stages  began  to  run  in  December  of  that  year. 


1 66  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

In  that  same  year  (1857)  the  government  let  another 
contract  to  John  Butterfield  for  carrying  the  mail  from  St. 
Louis  to  San  Fransico  over  this  same  southern  route  through 
the  Gadsden  Purchase.  From  St.  Louis  the  route  of  this 
Butterfield  Overland  Stage  swung  away  by  Springfield  to 
Van  Buren,  Arkansas,  where  the  Memphis  mail  was  taken 
on ;  across  Red  River  near  Sherman  and  out  through  west 
Texas  by  Forts  Chadbourne  and  Belknap  to  El  Paso  ;  up  the 
Rio  Grande  to  Mesilla  and  west  over  Cooke's  wagon  road 
(sec.  169)  by  Tucson  and  the  Gila  River  to  Fort  Yuma; 
across  the  burning  Mojave  Desert,  down  the  San  Joaquin 
(hwa-ken')  Valley,  and  over  to  San  Francisco  —  twenty- 
seven  hundred  and  sixty  miles  through  as  wild  and  danger- 
ous a  country  as  man  ever  trod.  But  this  long  swing  to  the 
south  avoided  the  winter  snows  in  the  mountains  to  the 
north  and  made  success  possible  from  the  very  beginning. 

The  first  stages  started  from  St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco 
September  15,  1858,  on  a  schedule  of  twenty-five  days 
each  way,  with  a  system  of  stations  and  relays  similar  to 
that  in  use  on  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  (sec.  188).  The  first 
contract  called  for  service  twice  a  week  each  way  for 
$600,000  a  year.  Later  it  became  daily.  Though  the 
company  lost  money,  it  failed  to  bring  the  stages  through 
on  schedule  time  but  three  times  in  its  history.  The 
southern  route  through  New  Mexico  to  the  Pacific  was 
definitely  proved  to  be  a  practicable  highway  before  the 
first  ride  of  the  Pony  Express  by  the  Great  Salt  Lake. 

200.  Civil  War  Brings  Ruin.  —  By  1860  this  was  the 
line  which  public  opinion  had  settled  as  the  one  to  be 
constructed;  and  if  the  Civil  War  had  not  come  on  to 
interfere  with  it,  the  first  American  railroad  to  the  Pacific 
would  have  been  through  the  Gadsden  Purchase,  which 


BEGINNINGS   OF  THE  TERRITORY  167 

had  been  made  primarily  to  acquire  that  route.  As  the 
war  approached  in  the  spring  of  1861  all  hope  for  the 
building  of  a  railroad  over  this  southern  route  was  destroyed, 
and  the  Butterfield  Overland  Stage  line  was  abandoned, 
lest  it  should  fall  into  the  control  of  the  Confederacy. 

The  Wells-Butterfield  interests  were  allowed  to  transfer 
their  horses  and  Concord  coaches  to  the  west  end  of  the  new 
northern  route  from  San  Francisco  east  by  way  of  the  Great 
Salt  Lake,  but  their  losses  were  so  heavy  that  they  soon 
went  out  of  the  mail  business.  They  turned  their  atten- 
tion to  express  and  by  the  end  of  the  war  were  monopoliz- 
ing the  express  business  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In 
1866  Wells,  Fargo  and  Company,  recently  chartered  by 
the  Territory  of  Colorado,  was  strong  enough  to  get  control 
of  the  overland  mail  business  again  —  but  it  was  not 
through  New  Mexico. 

GENERAL  READINGS 

H.  H.  BANCROFT,  History  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  467-473,  491-520, 
629-679. 

W.  W.  H.  DAVIS,  El  Gringo,  160-432. 

L.  B.  PRINCE,  A  Concise  History  of  New  Mexico,  191-195. 

B.  M.  Read,  Illustrated  History  of  New  Mexico,  463-496. 

R.  E.  TWITCHELL,  The  Leading  Facts  of  New  Mexican  History,  II,  280- 
326. 

J.  H.  Vaughan,  History  of  Education  in  New  Mexico,  Chapters  V,  VI. 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

1.  THE  TERRITORIAL  GOVERNMENT.     F.   N.   Thorpe   (ed.),   American 
Charters,  Constitutions,  and  Organic  Laws,  1492-1908,  V,  2615-2622,  con- 
tains the  Organic  Act;  G.  P.  Garrison,   Westward  Extension,   1841-1850 
("American  Nation"  Series,  XVII),  315-332. 

2.  INDIAN  AFFAIRS  IN  1852.     A.  H.  Abel  (ed.),  "The  Journal  of  John 
Greiner"  (Daily  Journal  of  Greiner  as  Indian  Agent  at  Santa  F£,  Apr.  i- 
Sept.  30,  1852),  in  Old  Santa  Fe,  III  (July,  1916),  189-243. 

3.  THE  TEXAS  CLAIM  TO  EASTERN  NEW  MEXICO.    W.  C.  Binkley,  "The 


1 68  THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

Question  of  Texas  Jurisdiction  in  New  Mexico  under  the  United  States, 
1848-1850,"  in  Southwestern  Historical  Quarterly,  XXIV  (July,  1920),  1-38. 
4.  THE  GADSDEN  PURCHASE  AND  THE  ROUTE  TO  THE  PACIFIC.    F.  L. 
Paxson,  The  Last  American  Frontier,  174-191. 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Outline  the  form  of  government  created  by  the  Organic  Act  of  1851. 
When  was  the  Territorial  government  organized.     \Vas  Calhoun  a  good 
choice  for  governor  ?     Why  ? 

2.  In  what  way  was  the  new  government  an  improvement  over  that 
from  1846  to  1851? 

3.  What  important  laws  were  passed  by  the  first  legislature? 

4.  How  was  the  Texas  boundary  dispute  settled?     Was  the  settlement 
fair?     Why? 

5.  Why  were  the  people  not  entirely  satisfied  with  the  Territorial  govern- 
ment?    Was  their  dissatisfaction  unreasonable?     Why? 

6.  Why  did   Colonel  Sumner  not  cooperate  with   Governor   Calhoun 
against  the  Indians?     What  new  military  posts  did  Sumner  establish? 

7.  What  is  the  reason  for  the  general  impression  that  the  Santa  Fe  trade 
ceased  to  be  important  after  1846?     Is  it  correct?     Why? 

8.  Who  were  the  Forty-niners?     What  routes  did  they  follow  to  Cali- 
fornia ? 

9.  Draw  a  map  illustrating  the  Mexican  boundary  dispute.     W7hy  was 
the  territory  so  important  to  the  United  States. 

10.  Why  did  the  Gadsden  Purchase  include  more  than  the  disputed 
region? 

11.  Give  an  account  of  the  beginning  of  the  overland  stage  to  the  Pacific. 

12.  Why  did  the  first  Pacific  railroad  not  follow  this  same  route?     What 
effect  would  such  a  road  have  had  on  New  Mexico's  progress? 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE   CIVIL  WAR  AND   THE   SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  INDIAN 

PROBLEM 

I.     NEW  MEXICO  IN  THE   CIVIL  WAR 

201.  New  Mexico  for  the  Union.  —  Although  the  New 
Mexicans  were  accustomed  to  both  native  peonage  and 
captive  Indian  slavery  (sec.  149),  there  were  only  twenty- 
two  Negro  slaves  in  the  Territory  in  1861.  The  question 
of  Negro  slavery,  therefore,  was  not  important.  Nor 
was  the  great  political  controversy  between  North  and 
South  over  the  nature  of  the  Union  of  very  vital  interest 
in  this  remote  region. 

Moreover,  New  Mexico  was  a  conquered  province ;  and 
the  fifteen  years  since  the  American  Occupation  had  not 
been  sufficient  to  clear  away  all  ill  feeling  and  develop  a 
strong  sentimental  attachment  to  the  Union.  Most  of  the 
early  pioneers  and  traders  over  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  had  been 
Southerners.  Most  of  the  American  officers  in  the  Ter- 
ritory had  been  Southerners.  From  long  association,  there- 
fore, the  New  Mexicans  had  been  attached  to  the  South. 
But  when  the  first  Southern  advance  came  from  Texas, 
popular  feeling  set  strongly  toward  the  Union.  The  long- 
standing controversy  with  Texas  (sees.  137,  139-141,  189) 
had  bred  much  bad  feeling.  Texans  were  intensely  un- 
popular with  the  average  New  Mexican. 

Governor  Connelly  took  full  advantage  of  this  sentiment 
when  he  issued  his  proclamation  of  September  o,  1861, 

i6q 


1 7o 


THE   HISTORY   OF   NEW   MEXICO 


calling  for  volunteers  to  resist  invasion  "  by  an  armed 
force  from  the  State  of  Texas"  The  name  of  the  Con- 
federacy was  not  mentioned. 

202.  A  Confederate  Dream  of  Empire.  —  The  territory 
of  the  Confederacy  extended  westward  to  El  Paso.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  people  of  southern  New  Mexico 
and  southern  California  were  from  the  South.  Naturally 
they  would  sympathize  with  their  section  in  the  coming 


CIVIL  WAR  OPERATIONS 
IN  NEW  MEXICO 


contest ;  and  if  given  some  encouragement,  they  might 
even  be  able  to  control  both  these  new  regions.  The 
Confederate  government  was  anxious  to  extend  its  terri- 
tory to  the  Pacific.  As  a  transcontinental  nation  its 
prestige  would  be  doubled ;  its  credit  would  be  increased ; 
and  it  might  reasonably  expect  early  recognition  by  the 
great  nations  and  a  speedy  ending  of  the  war.  It  was  a 
glorious  dream  of  empire  destined  never  to  come  true ;  but 
it  brought  the  Civil  War  to  New  Mexico. 

Four  officers  in  the  Military  Department  of  New  Mexico 
resigned  their  commissions,  went  South  to  give  their  swords 


THE   CIVIL  WAR 


171 


to  their  native  States,  and  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Confederate  armies.  A  few  privates  are  said  to  have 
followed  the  same  course.  Otherwise  the  entire  military 
establishment  in  New  Mexico  espoused  the  Union  cause. 

203.  Confederates    Take    Possession    of    the    Mesilla 
Valley.— In  July,  1861,  Lieuten-  ^^^^^ 

ant  Colonel  John  R.  Baylor  of 
the  Confederate  army  came  up 
by  Fort  Bliss  with  six  hundred 
Texans,  occupied  the  town  of 
Mesilla  without  serious  opposi- 
tion, and  prepared  to  attack 
Fort  Fillmore,  then  under  com- 
mand of  Major  Isaac  Lynde,  of 
Vermont.  Lynde,  unwilling  to 
stand  an  attack  in  the  old 
adobe  fort  with  no  supply  of 
water  within  a  mile,  decided  to 
evacuate  it  and  join  other  Union 
forces  at  Fort  Stanton.  Baylor 
pursued  him  and  captured  his 
entire  force  before  they  crossed  the  Organ  Pass. 

204.  The  Confederate  "  Territory  of  Arizona."  —  Colo- 
nel Baylor  returned  to  Mesilla  and  took  up  the  political 
situation.     Southern  New  Mexico,  including  the  Arizona 
settlements  south  of  the  Gila,  had  long  been  discontented 
because  they  were  cut  off  from  the  capital  by  the  Jornada 
del  Muerto  and  neglected  by  New  Mexican  officials.     Con- 
ventions had   been   held   at   Mesilla   (1859)   and   Tucson 
(1860)  to  lay  plans  for  separating  this  region  from  New 
Mexico  and  organizing  it  as  the  Territory  of  Arizona. 

The  lesson  of  this  history  was  not  lost  on  Colonel  Baylor. 


COLONEL  JOHN  R.  BAYLOR 


172 


THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 


He  issued  a  proclamation  August  i,  organizing  all  of  New 
Mexico  south  of  the  thirty-fourth  parallel  as  the  "  Terri- 
tory of  Arizona  "  under  the  Confederate  States  of  America, 
with  Mesilla  as  the  capital,  himself  as  temporary  governor, 
and  other  officials  appointed  by  him  until  otherwise  pro- 
vided by  the  Confederate  Congress.  More  than  three 
hundred  volunteers  from  the  Mesilla  Valley  joined  his 
forces. 

205.  Federal  Preparations.  —  On  the  Federal  side  active 

preparations  were  being 
made  for  the  defense  of 
the  Territory.  Colonel  E. 
R.  S.  Canby,  commander 
of  the  Military  Depart- 
ment of  New  Mexico, 
urged  the  War  Depart- 
ment to  send  out  some 
regular  troops.  The  Ter- 
ritorial  legislature 
promptly  authorized  Gov- 
ernor Connelly  to  call  out 
the  militia.  Colonel  Can- 
by  enrolled  and  organiz- 

the  militia  and  volunteers  for  the  coming  conflict.  But 
the  Federal  government  was  so  absorbed  in  the  oper- 
ations before  Washington  and  the  contest  for  the 
control  of  Missouri  and  the  border  States  east  of  the 
Mississippi  that  the  "  regular  troops  "  were  not  forth- 
coming. Canby  then  appealed  to  Governor  Gilpin,  of 
Colorado,  for  help. 

206.  The  Conquest  of   Arizona.  —  In  December,  1861, 
General  H.  H.  Sibley,  with  a  force  of  2,300  men  from  San 


COLONEL  E.  R,  S.  CANBY 


THE   CIVIL   WAR 


173 


Antonio,  Texas,  relieved  Colonel  Baylor  of  command  at 
Mesilla.  His  plan  was  (i)  to  take  possession  of  the  Arizona 
settlements  south  of  the  Gila  and  (2)  to  march  northward 
for  the  capture  of  Fort  Craig,  Albuquerque,  Santa  Fe, 
and  Fort  Union. 

In  February,  1862,  Captain  Hunter  and  a  hundred  men 
set  out  for  Arizona.  The  task  was  easy.  The  Union 
commanders  at  Forts  Buchanan  and  Breckenridge  had 
abandoned  the  country  in  order  to  unite  with  other  Union 


FORT  UNION  IN  THE  FIFTIES 

forces  at  Fort  Craig  on  the  Rio  Grande.  A  convention  at 
Tucson  had  already  declared  Arizona  a  part  of  the  Con- 
federacy, and  a  Delegate  to  the  Confederate  Congress  had 
been  elected.  Taking  possession  of  Tucson,  unopposed, 
Captain  Hunter  set  out  for  Fort  Yuma.  The  approach  of 
the  "  California  Column "  spoiled  this  enterprise,  and 
Hunter  hastened  back  to  the  Rio  Grande. 

207.   The  Confederate  Advance  on  Santa  Fe.  —  In  the 
meantime  (February,  1862)  General  Sibley  with  an  army  of 


174  THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW  MEXICO 

2,600  men  marched  northward  for  the  major  operation  in 
New  Mexico.  At  Valverde,  seven  miles  north  of  Fort 
Craig,  he  met  General  Canby  with  about  3,800  men  from 
the  Fort.  In  a  desperate  all-day  battle  the  Confederates 
were  victorious.  "  No  part  of  the  Federal  army  stopped 
until  safely  within  the  walls  of  Fort  Craig." 

Sibley  left  his  wounded  at  Socorro,  captured  Albuquerque 
without  resistance,  and  marched  on  Santa  Fe.  Panic  set 
in  at  the  capital.  The  Territorial  officials  fled,  and  the 
garrison  from  Fort  Marcy  started  across  the  mountains 
with  a  caravan  of  a  hundred  and  twenty  wagons  loaded 
with  military  supplies  headed  toward  Fort  Union.  The 
Confederates  entered  the  city  unopposed  and  prepared 
for  the  final  drive  —  the  capture  of  Fort  Union  on  the 
Mora  River. 

208.  The  Battle  of  Apache  Canyon,  or  Glorieta. 
Union  fortunes  in  the  Territory  were  now  at  their  lowest 
ebb.  Fort  Fillmore,  Fort  Craig,  Albuquerque,  and  Santa 
Fe,  one  after  another,  had  fallen  before  the  victorious 
Southerners.  What  would  be  the  fate  of  Fort  Union  ?  Its 
commander  mined  all  parts  of  it  so  that  if  he  were  forced 
to  surrender,  he  might  blow  it  up  before  leaving. 

At  this  critical  time  the  arrival  of  the  Colorado  Volunteers 
asked  for  by  Colonel  Canby  the  preceding  fall  (sec.  205) 
turned  the  balance  in  favor  of  the  Union.  On  the  way 
toward  Santa  Fe  they  met  the  Confederates  in  Apache 
Canyon,  near  Glorieta,  fifteen  miles  southeast  of  the  capital. 
After  two  days  of  sharp  fighting  (March  27,  28)  the  out- 
numbered Union  forces  were  driven  back  to  Pigeon's 
Ranch  and  finally  to  Kozlosky's  Ranch,  and  the  Confed- 
erates remained  in  control  of  the  canyon.  But  the  de- 
cisive movement  had  been  made  unobserved,  by  Major 


THE   CIVIL   WAR 


Chivington,  of  the  Colorado  Volunteers,  with  a  detach- 
ment of  four  hundred  men  guided  over  a  difficult  moun- 
tain trail  by  Colonel  Manuel  Chaves,  of  the  New  Mexico 
Volunteers.  They  fell  upon  the  Confederate  supply  train 
in  the  rear,  drove  off  the  guard,  "  spiked  the  cannon, 
bayonetted  eleven  hundred  mules,  burned  sixty-four 
wagons,  and  destroyed  all  the  Confederate  supplies." 
The  Confederates  fell  back  on  Santa  Fe,  and  the  Federals 
returned  to  Fort  Union. 
209.  The  Confederate 
Retreat.-With  the  failure 
of  the  advance  on  Fort 
Union,  Confederate  plans 
were  ruined.  Sibley  soon 
evacuated  Santa  Fe  and 
began  his  retreat  down 
the  Rio  Grande.  Major 
Paul,  from  Fort  Union, 
immediately  occupied  the 
capital  and  followed  in  hot 
pursuit.  Colonel  Canby 
left  Fort  Craig  in  com- 
mand of  Colonel  Kit  CIVIL  WAR  CANNON  BURIED  AT  ALBU- 

^  QUERQUE    BY    THE    CONFEDERATES 

Carson   and   hastened 

northward.  At  Albuquerque  he  met  Sibley 's  men  and 
exchanged  shots  with  them  for  most  of  one  day,  but  in 
attempting  to  unite  with  Major  Paul,  allowed  Sibley  to 
escape  down  the  river.  On  April  15  the  united  forces 
of  Canby  and  Paul  overtook  the  Confederates  at  Pe- 
ralta  and  engaged  them  for  another  day.  That  night 
the  Southerners  crossed  to  the  west  side  of  the  river. 
For  two  days  the  two  armies  moved  slowly  down  op- 


176  THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

posite  sides  of  the  river  in  sight  of  each  other.  But 
on  the  morning  of  the  eighteenth  the  Confederates 
were  gone.  They  had  packed  seven  days'  rations  on 
mules,  abandoned  their  wagons,  burned  such  supplies  as 
could  not  be  carried,  and  gone  by  trail  across  the  moun- 
tains to  the  west  of  Fort  Craig.  The  Union  forces  crossed 
the  river  near  Socorro,  marched  to  Fort  Craig,  and  gave 
up  the  pursuit.  Early  in  May  Sibley  appeared  in  the 
Mesilla  Valley  and  soon  moved  on  to  Fort  Bliss.  His  New 
Mexico  campaign  had  cost  him  nearly  half  his  original 
force  and  had  profited  him  nothing.  All  danger  from  the 
Confederacy  was  passed. 

When  the  "  California  Column  "  came  in  from  the  west 
in  July  and  August,  1862,  the  Civil  War  in  New  Mexico  was 
over,  and  the  last  of  the  Confederates  were  gone.  Its 
commander,  General  Carleton,  became  commander  of  the 
Department  of  New  Mexico;  Colonel  Canby  went  east; 
and  the  Coloradoans  returned  home.  The  Calif ornians 
did  garrison  duty  and  participated  in  numerous  Indian 
campaigns. 

210.  Peonage  Abolished.  —  The  one  abuse  in  New 
Mexican  life  that  should  have  been  most  certainly  swept 
away  by  the  Civil  War  was  the  system  of  peonage,  or 
bondage  for  debt  (sec.  149).  But  the  Emancipation 
Proclamation  and  the  Thirteenth  Amendment  applied 
only  to  Negroes.  The  peon  received  no  relief  until  Con- 
gress abolished  the  whole  system  in  1867. 

Whipping  as  a  punishment  for  Stealing  stock  still  con- 
tinued. "  Not  less  than  thirty  lashes,  well  laid  on  his 
bare  back,  nor  more  than  sixty,  at  the  discretion  of  the 
court  "  was  the  punishment  prescribed.  The  custom  was 
defended  on  the  ground  that  the  opportunities  for  stealing 


THE   CIVIL   WAR 


177 


were  so  great  and  jails  so  few  as  to  demand  some  severe 
and  speedy  method  of  dealing  with  criminals. 

211.  Organization  of  the  Territory  of  Arizona.  —  The 
Civil  War  period  saw  New  Mexico's  territory  reduced  by 
half.  The  Territory  of  Colorado,  organized  in  1861,  took 
in  the  northeastern  section  lying  north  of  the  thirty- 
seventh  parallel.  Then  in  1863  the  western  half  was 
organized  into  the  Territory  of  Arizona.  The  few  settle- 


AMKKUAN   INDIAN  FIGHTERS  ON  THE  DESERT  QUENCHING   THEIR 
THIRST  WITH  BLOOD  FROM  THEIR  OWN  VEINS 

ments  out  there  in  the  Gadsden  Purchase  south  of  the 
Gila  had  already  in  1859-1860  and  again  at  the  opening  of 
the  Civil  War  tried  to  join  the  Mesilla  Valley  and  organize 
the  Territory  of  Arizona.  The  military  posts  had  been 
abandoned;  the  Indians  had  again  become  masters  of  the 
country  ;  and  the  settlers  had  fled  for  their  lives.  Tucson, 
Yuma,  a  few  ranches,  and  an  occasional  miner  were  all 
there  was  of  civilization  left.  To  this  situation  the  govern- 
ment at  Washington  could  not  be  indifferent ;  for  the  region 
south  of  the  Gila  was  an  important  link  in  the  shortest 


i78 


THE  HISTORY  OF   NEW   MEXICO 


overland  route  from  the  Missouri  River  to  the  Pacific 
coast  and  was  the  only  route  from  the  Southwest  to  the 
coast.  In  1863,  therefore,  Congress  cut  off  all  of  New 
Mexico  west  of  the  one  hundred  and  ninth  meridian  and 
organized  it  into  the  Territory  of  Arizona.  A  new  gov- 
ernment in  that  region  would  hold  the  Indians  in  check. 

II      SETTLING  THE    INDIAN    PROBLEM 

212.  The  Indian 
Menace.  -  When 
the  Civil  War 
closed,  the  Indian 
problem  in  New 
Mexico  was  press- 
ing for  solution. 
Most  of  the  mili- 
tary posts  had  been 
abandoned  in  1861 
in  order  to  con- 
centrate  their 
forces  at  such 
strategic  points  as 
Fort  Craig,  Santa 
Fe,  and  Fort 
Union,  leaving 
practically  the 
whole  Territory  as 
completely  exposed  to  Indian  attack  as  it  had  been  at  any 
time  during  the  preceding  century.  The  Indians,  quick  to 
see  their  opportunity,  plundered  the  settlements,  murdered 
the  inhabitants,  and  drove  off  stock  as  in  the  good  old  clays 
before  the  coming  of  the  Americans.  But  the  savage  storm 


GERONIMO 


THE   CIVIL  WAR 


179 


lasted  only  long  enough  to  drive  home  the  lesson  that  New 
Mexico  must  be  freed  from  this  perpetual  menace. 

213.  Rounding  up  the  Red  Men.  —  The  time  was  for- 
tunate. The  departure  of  the  Confederates  left  General 
Carlton  with  several 
thousand  troops  ready 
for  action  and  in  no 
mood  to  be  lenient 
with  the  ancient  ene- 
my. Now  for  the  first 
time  an  Indian  policy 
was  developed.  The 

wild   tribes    from   all 

• 

parts  of  the  Territory 
were  to  be  removed 
from  their  ancient 
haunts  and  rounded 
up  under  guard  at  the 
Bosque  Redondo  (bos' 
ka  ra-thon'do) ,  on  the 
P  e  c  o  s  River  near 
Fort  Sumner.  There, 
disarmed  and  con- 
vinced of  their  power- 
lessness,  they  might 
be  taught  how  to 

farm  and  become  partially  self-supporting — the  first  lesson 
in  civilized  life. 

Colonel  Kit  Carson,  the  great  pathfinder  and  scout, 
who  had  commanded  the  first  regiment  of  New  Mexico 
volunteers  at  the  battle  of  Valverde,  was  sent  against  the 
Mescalero  (me's-ka-la'ro)  Apaches  to  fight  it  out  to  a  finish 


KIT  CARSON   MONUMENT,   SANTA  FE 


i8o  THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW  MEXICO 

and  bring  them  in.  Early  in  1863  he  had  four  hundred 
Mescaleros  at  the  Bosque  Redondo,  and  by  the  end  of 
the  year  he  had  brought  in  two  hundred  Navajos  also. 
Before  the  close  of  the  following  year  (1864)  he  had 
marched  straight  into  the  Navajo  stronghold  in  Chelly 
(cha-ye')  Canyon,  defeated  the  Navajos,  and  had  seven 
thousand  of  them  over  on  the  Pecos  River  chafing  at  the 
confinement  of  their  new  quarters. 

Something  worth  while  had  been  accomplished:  the 
Navajos  had  been  beaten  and  knew  it.  Of  all  the  wild 
tribes,  they  had  been  the  most  unsatisfactory  to  deal  with. 
Numbering  hardly  more  than  ten  thousand,  split  up  into 
small  bands  leading  a  scattered  nomadic  life  in  order  to 
find  pasture  for  their  herds,  they  were  less  subject  to  the 
influence  of  their  chiefs  than  any  of  the  other  Indians. 
Treaty  making  had  become  an  art  with  them,  to  be  prac- 
ticed when  it  would  save  them  from  punishment ;  and 
treaty  breaking,  a  regular  procedure  when  it  was  safe. 
For  more  years  than  any  living  New  Mexican  could  count 
they  had  been  needing  a  sound  whipping.  Now  they  had 
it.  New  Mexico  could  breathe  easier. 

214.  Difficulties  at  the  Bosque  Redondo.  —  But  the 
Bosque  Redondo  colonizing  scheme  did  not  work.  The 
Indians  were  hostile  among  themselves,  hated  the  whites 
and  were  hated  by  them,  constantly  chafed  under  captivity 
in  a  new  and  strange  region.  They  were  lazy,  indolent, 
and  sullen.  Disease  spread  among  them ;  and  starva- 
tion was  ahead  unless  the  government  fed  them. 

The  Mescaleros  fled  in  1866  and  went  on  the  warpath. 
Then  came  a  change  of  policy.  A  peace  commission  from 
Washington  came  out  in  1868  and  signed  a  treaty  allowing 
the  Navajos  to  return  to  a  reservation  in  their  own  country, 


THE   CILIL  WAR 


181 


northwestern    New    Mexico    and    northeastern    Arizona. 
Fort  Sumner  was  abandoned.     The  Navajos  had  not  been 


ON  THE  TRAIL  OF  GEROXIMO 

From  Personal  Recollections  of  General  Miles 


182 


THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 


civilized,  but  the  fear  of  the  white  man's  power  had  been 
put  in  his  heart.  His  militant  spirit  was  broken,  and  he 
has  given  no  more  serious  trouble. 

215.  The  Apaches  on  the  Warpath.  —  The  Mescalero 
Apaches  who  ran  away  from  the  Bosque  in   1866  were 
placed  on  a  reservation  near  Fort  Stanton  in  1873-1874. 
The  Apaches  were  still  as  warlike  and  fond  of  plunder  as 
they  had  been  for  centuries,  and  after  1870  were  armed 

,      with   late  model    repeating  rifles 

r 

and  well  supplied  with  ammuni- 
tion secured  through  unscrupu- 
jgj  lous  white  traders. 

After  the  removal  of  the  Nav- 
ajos  to  their  reservation  in  the 
northwest  and  the  Mescaleros 
and  other  Apaches  to  theirs  at 
Fort  Stanton  there  was  a  tempo- 
rary lull  in  Indian  troubles.  In 
the  seventies  there  was  compar- 
ative peace.  Events  proved, 
GENERAL  GEORGE  H.  CROOK  howevei%  that  u  was  only  the 

calm  before  the  gathering  storm.  In  1879  tne  storm  broke. 
Chief  Victorio  and  his  band  of  Apache  braves  left  the  Mes- 
calero Reservation  and  went  on  the  warpath.  For  the  next 
four  years  they  spread  terror  throughout  southern  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona,  until  Victorio  was  killed  in  1883. 

216.  Geronimo's   Raids.  —  Two  years  later   Geronimo 
(ha-ro'ne-mo),  one  of  the  greatest  chiefs  of  the  Apache 
nation,  fled  from  the  San  Carlos  Reservation  in  Arizona 
and  took  up  the  bloody  work  of  Victorio,  terrorizing  an 
even  wider  region  extending  into  northern  Mexico.     Operat- 
ing at  the  head  of  a  band  of  mountain  outlaws  in  a  country 


THE  CIVIL  WAR  183 

where  the  Apaches  knew  every  trail,  water  hole,  and 
mountain  pass,  he  succeeded  in  beating  off,  and  keeping  out 
of  the  way  of,  American  and  Mexican  forces  many  times 
larger  than  his  own. 

In  the  spring  of  1886  General  George  H.  Crook,  worn- 
out  with  hard  campaigning  against  Victorio  and  Geronimo 
and  humiliated  by  the  escape  of  Geronimo  after  capture, 
asked  to  be  relieved  from  command.  Then  the  Apache 
troubles  entered  their  final  stage.  President  Cleveland 
gave  the  command  to  General  Nelson  A.  Miles  with  orders 
to  capture  Geronimo  and  round  up  every  Apache  in  the 
Southwest  on  reservations.  By  the  end  of  the  summer 
the  braves  were  captured,  and  Geronimo,  the  last  great 
Apache  chief  and  warrior,  gave  up  the  fight.  The  blood- 
thirsty Apaches,  who  had  fought  the  Spaniards  for  three 
hundred  years  and  had  not  been  subdued,  tried  the  mettle 
of  our  army  as  no  others  ever  did. 

The  government's  policy  of  placing  the  wild  tribes  on 
reservations  and  keeping  them  there  is  civilizing  them  very 
slowly,  but  experience  shows  that  it  is  the  only  wise  course. 

217.  The  Pueblos  since  1847.  —  The  Pueblos  have  not 
been  troublesome  during  the  American  period.  They 
struck  one  murderous  blow  at  the  power  of  the  newcomers 
in  the  Taos  Rebellion  of  1847  (sees.  171-175).  The  out- 
come was  clear  and  unmistakable.  The  Pueblos  saw  the 
point.  Since  then  they  have  given  no  trouble. 

They  were  citizens  of  the  Mexican  Republic  and  became 
citizens  of  the  United  States  under  the  terms  of  the  treaty 
of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  in  1848.  Both  their  citizenship  and 
their  tribal  lands  were  confirmed  by  a  decision  of  the  Terri- 
torial Supreme  Court  in  1869,  which  has  been  followed  in 
many  succeeding  decisions. 


184  THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

III.    INTERNAL   DISORDER 

218.  The  Spirit  of  Lawlessness.  —  In  the  seventies  the 
railroads  began  to  approach  from  three  directions:    the 
Santa  Fe  from  the  Missouri  River  to  the  northeast,  the 
Texas  and  Pacific  line  from  the  southeast,  and  the  South- 
ern Pacific  from  the  Pacific  coast  through  Arizona.     New 
Mexico  became  one  of  the  last  resorts  for  the  desperate 
characters  of  the  southwestern  frontier.     After  the  Santa 
Fe  Railroad  reached  Trinidad,  Colorado,  in  1876,  Coif  ax 
County  became  a  favorite  retreat  for  the  criminal  elements 
drifting  in  from  that  region.     Dona  Ana  County  in  the 
southwest  received  her  full  share  of   the   same   type   of 
population. 

But  Coif  ax  and  Dona  Ana  had  no  monopoly  of  the  "  bad 
men."  Lincoln  County,  which  in  those  days  included  all 
southeastern  New  Mexico,  could  easily  carry  off  the  honors 
in  this  respect.  There  was  no  railroad  to  bring  desperadoes 
into  this  region,  but  it  had  all  the  characteristics  of  a  border 
province  where  two  civilizations  meet  and  clash.  The 
old  settlements  were  in  the  central  mountain  region ;  and 
of  the  county's  whole  population  (about  2,000)  nearly  all 
were  native-born  New  Mexicans.  But  a  new  element  was 
beginning  to  drift  into  the  lowlands  of  the  Pecos  Valley 
from  the  south  and  east.  It  was  composed  of  restless 
cattlemen  from  western  Texas,  accompanied  by  the  usual 
quota  of  "  hard  characters." 

219.  The    "  Lincoln    County    War."  —  Between  these 
newcomers  of  the  plains  and  the  old  time  cattlemen  in  the 
region  around  Lincoln  a  bloody  feud  soon  developed ;  and, 
as  Emerson  Hough  has  said,  "  southeastern  New  Mexico, 
for  twenty  years  after   the  Civil  War,  was  without  doubt, 
as  dangerous  a  country  as  ever  lay  out  of  doors." 


THE  CIVIL  WAR  185 

In  that  environment  and  out  of  that  feud  grew  the  bloody 
disorders  known  as  the  "  Lincoln  County  War  "  (1876- 
1878).  Both  factions  had  large  beef  contracts  with  the 
Mescalero  Indian  Agency  ;  both  were  furnishing  beef  to  the 
United  States  military  forces  at  Fort  Stanton ;  each 
accused  the  other  of  stealing  cattle ;  and  there  is  little 
reason  to  believe  that  either  was  innocent.  Stealing  cattle 


THE  OLD  CHISUM   RANCH  NEAR  ROSWELL 

in  that  broad,  unsettled  region  with  a  near-by  market 
was  easier,  quicker,  and  more  profitable  than  going  to  the 
trouble  of  raising  them.  Yet  killing  was  the  punishment 
for  cattle  stealing;  and  with  a  crude  desperado  like  Billy 
the  Kid  (William  H.  Bonney)  to  promote  this  outbreak 
of  crime,  the  whole  region  was  kept  in  terror  for  more  than 
two  years.  Territorial  officials  took  no  effective  measures 
to  stop  it ;  and  some  were  even  suspected  of  being  interested 
parties.  Finally  in  1878  General  Lew  Wallace,  the  famous 


1 86  THE  HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

author  who  wrote  part  of  Ben  Hur  in  the  Palace  of  the 
Governors  at  Santa  Fe,  was  appointed  governor  for  the 
specific  purpose  of  putting  an  end  to  the  disturbances  in 
Lincoln  County  and  restoring  order  in  the  Territory. 

The  most  effective  single  blow,  however,  was  struck 
by  Pat  F.  Garrett,  sheriff  of  Lincoln  County,  when  he 
shot  and  killed  Billy  the  Kid  at  Fort  Sumner  in  July,  1878. 
The  death  of  that  twenty-one-year-old  desperado,  whose 
murders  already  numbered  nine,  and  who  was  so  proud  of 
them  that  he  claimed  twenty-one,  was  the  beginning  of  the 
end  of  the  carnival  of  crime  in  which  he  had  played  so 
bloody  a  part. 

GENERAL  READINGS 

H.  H.  BANCROFT,  History  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  504-519,  558-577, 
662-749. 

L.  B.  PRINCE,  A  Concise  History  of  New  Mexico,  195-203,  220-226. 

R.  E.  TWITCHELL,  The  Leading  Facts  of  New  Mexican  History,  II ,  337-420. 

"The  Confederate  Invasion  of  New  Mexico,  1861-1862"  (Anonymous), 
in  Old.  Santa  Fe,  III  (Jan.  1916),  5-43. 

C.  F.  LUMYIS,  The  Land  of  Poco  Tiempo,  155-214.  (A  graphic  account  of 
Apache  warfare.) 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

1.  In  sections  of  the  State  where  there  were  battles  or  other  important 
Civil  War  operations  the  class  should  work  up  together  that  local  history. 

2.  Similar  local  studies  may  be  made  in  regions  near  Indian  reservations 
or  the  old  homes  of  Indian  tribes. 


QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Why  was  there  no  great  enthusiasm  in  New  Mexico  over  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  War?     Why  did  Governor  Connelly  speak  of  the  Con- 
federates as  Texans  f 

2.  How  did  the  plans  of  the  Confederacy  affect  New  Mexico? 

3.  Draw  a  map  of  the  Confederate  "Territory  of  Arizona,"  locating  Me- 
silla,  Fort  Fillmore,  and  Tusc6n. 

4.  What  preparations  were  the  Union  forces  making  for  defense?    Why 
did  they  abandon  the  forts  in  the  Gila  country? 


THE  CIVIL  WAR  187 

5.  Locate  Fort  Craig,  Valverde,  Apache  Canyon,  and  Fort  Union.     Win- 
did  the  Confederate  advance  on  Fort  Union  fail? 

6.  What  was  accomplished  by  (a)  the  Colorado  Volunteers?     (b)  the 
California  Column? 

7.  When  was  peonage  abolished?     What  defense  was  offered  for  punish- 
ment by  whipping  ?     Was  the  custom  justified  ? 

8.  Why  was  the  Territory  of  Arizona  organized?     Draw  a  map  showing 
how- it  reduced  the  size  of  New  Mexico. 

9.  What  change  did  the  Civil  War  make  in  the  Indian  problem?     Why 
was  this  a  good  time  for  settling  it? 

10.  What  was  the  new  Indian  policy?     How  did  it  work?     What  were 
the  chief  troubles  at  the  Bosque  Redondo? 

11.  Who  were  Victorio  and  Geronimo?     Why  were  the  Apaches  hard  to 
conquer? 

12.  Why  was  disorder  and  crime  prevalent  in  the  late  seventies? 

13.  What  was  the  "Lincoln  County  War"?     Who  was  Billy  the  Kid? 
Pat  F.  Garrett? 


CHAPTER  XIII 

RAILROADS   AND    ECONOMIC    DEVELOPMENT 

220.  The  Belated  Southwest.  —  The  coming  of  the  Civil 
War  in  1861  ruined  the  bright  hope  of  having  the  first 
railroad  to  the  Pacific  come  through  New  Mexico  and  the 
Southwest  —  one  of  the  greatest  calamities  in  the  State's 
history.     Such   a   road   would   have  brought  population, 
capital,  and  rapid  development.     But  when  the  first  trans- 
continental road  went  by  the  Great  Salt  Lake  (1869),  it 
drew  off  the  more  progressive  elements  of  population  in  that 
direction  and  left  the  Southwest  as  one  of  the  last  great 
regions  without  railroad  communication  with  the  outside 
world.     Into  it  came  enough  "  bad  men  "  to  stage  such 
bloody  disorders  as  the  Lincoln  County  War  (sec.   219) 
and  to  give  the  Territory  a  long  start  in  corrupt  politics 
and  a  bad  name  as  a  backward  region.     As  a  result  its 
development   has   been    retarded    by    a    generation,    and 
ignorant  Easterners  still  ask  if  people  in  New  Mexico  are 
much  like  the  people  in  the  United  States. 

221.  Travel  and  Communication.  —  The  increasing  num- 
ber of  substantial  wagons  and  carriages  after  the  American 
Occupation  greatly  improved  the  means  of  travel,  though 
there  was  but  little  improvement  in  roads.     Numerous 
requests  of  the  legislature  to  the  Federal  government  for 
appropriations  to  improve  the    road    from    the   Missouri 
River  to  Santa  Fe  and  on  through  to  California,  and  the 
southern  mail  route  from  Santa  Fe  to  El  Paso,  brought  no 

188 


RAILROADS  AND   ECONOMIC  DEVELOPMENT          189 

response.  The  road  over  the  mountains  from  Santa  Fe 
to  Taos,  completed  in  1873  with  the  aid  of  an  appropriation 
of  $25,000  from  Congress,  was  the  first  important  piece  of 
road  building. 

Over  the  Trail  to  the  east  it  took  a  month  for  letters  to 
reach  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  In  the  fifties  another  stage 
line  went  south  from  Santa  Fe  to  connect  at  Mesilla'with 
the  San  Antonio  and  San  Diego  Mail  and  the  Butterfield 
Overland  Stage  from  St.  Louis  to  San  Francisco  (sec.  199). 

222.  The  Coming  of  the  Telegraph. — The  completion 
of  the  military  telegraph  line  from  Fort  Leavenworth  to 
Santa  Fe,  July  8,  1869,  was  an  epoch-making  event.  •   By 
1875  it  was  extended  south  to  Mesilla,  then  west  to  Tucson 
a  year  later ;   and  when  it  reached  San  Diego  in  1877,  New 
Mexico  had   telegraphic  communication  with  both  sides 
of  the  continent. 

223.  Last  Years  of  the  Overland  Freighting  Business. 
-  American   troops  had   come  in  considerable   numbers. 

With  them  came  political  and  military  officials,  contractors, 
health  seekers,  adventurers,  and  a  few  home  seekers.  For 
all  of  them  every  kind  of  manufactured  article  had  to  be 
brought  from  the  States.  Arms,  ammunition,  and  military 
supplies  came  from  Fort  Leavenworth.  Dry  goods, 
groceries,  hardware,  drugs,  and  luxuries  in  greater  variety 
than  in  the  old  days  of  the  Trail,  to  satisfy  the  demand  of 
the  New  Mexicans  and  the  small  but  growing  element  of 
Americans,  whose  wants  were  harder  to  satisfy  --  all 
came  across  the  plains  in  wagons  drawn  by  mules  and  oxen. 
From  the  Civil  War  until  the  coming  of  >  the  Santa  Fe 
Railroad  was  the  greatest  epoch  of  the  overland  freighting 
business.  Three  thousand  traders'  wagons  came  across  the 
plains  in  1865,  and  a  year  later  the  number  had  risen  to 


190 


THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 


about  five  thousand,  besides  those  carrying  government 
freight.  The  value  of  the  cargo  each  year  was  counted  by 
the  millions. 

Still  the  trade  did  not  grow  in  size  so  rapidly  as  we  might 
expect;  for  after  the  Mexican  War  the  southern  caravan 
no  longer  went  to  Chihuahua  to  supply  the  trade  of  northern 
Mexico  (sec.  127),  and  the  overland  trade  to  California 
was  gradually  drawn  to  the  more  northern  route  as  the 


CATTLE  SEEKING  WATER 

two  ends  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  approached  each 
other  from  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  the  Pacific  coast. 

I.    THE   COMING   OF  THE  RAILROADS 

224.  The  Santa  Fe.  —  After  the  Civil  War  the  eastern 
end  of  the  stage  line  moved  slowly  westward  for  more  than 
ten  years  as  the  Santa  Fe  Railroad  crossed  the  prairies 
toward  the  Arkansas  River  and  then  crept  slowly  up  that 


RAILROADS  AND   ECONOMIC   DEVELOPMENT 


191 


stream  toward  the  mountains  of  eastern  Colorado.  By 
the  end  of  November,  1878,  construction  reached  the  top 
of  the  Raton  Pass.  The  first  passenger  train  came  into 
New  Mexico,  February  13,  1879.  Passing  Las  Vegas  in 
July,  the  road  reached  Santa  Fe,  February  9,  1880,  and 
Albuquerque,  April  22. 


CROSSING  RATON  MOUNTAINS  BY  THE  SWITCH-BACK  BEFORE 
DIGGING  THE  TUNNEL 

226.  Transcontinental  Lines.  —  When  the  line  down  the 
Rio  Grande  turned  west  to  Deming  and  met  the  Southern 
Pacific,  which  was  building  in  from  the  Pacific  coast,  March 
10,  1 88 1,  all-rail  communication  was  established  across  the 


192  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

continent  at  the  south  end  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  running 
the  whole  length  of  New  Mexico  from  northeast  to  south- 
west. The  line  down  the  Rio  Grande  reached  El  Paso 
and  the  coast  line  went  west  from  Albuquerque  to  the 
Arizona  line  that  same  year;  while  the  Denver  and  Rio 
Grande  had  already  built  into  the  Territory  from  the  north 
the  same  year  that  the  Santa  Fe  reached  Santa  Fe  and 
Albuquerque  (1880). 


HERD  OF  BUFFALO  STOPPING  A  TRAIN 

226.  The  Railways  Follow  the  Trails.  —  The  closeness 
with  which  the  railroad  followed  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  from 
the  Missouri  River  to  the  capital  of  New  Mexico  is  note- 
worthy. So  well  had  the  Indian  pathfinders  and  the  New 
Mexican  and  American  plainsmen,  mountaineers,  and 
traders  done  the  work  of  trail  making  that  when  the  trained 
engineer  came  along  he  had  only  to  smooth  out  curves,  do 
away  with  detours,  and  cut  away  the  side  of  a  mountain 


RAILROADS  AND   ECONOMIC   DEVELOPMENT          193 

here  and  there  in  order  to  bring-  the  great  railway  over  the 
old  Trail.  In  the  whole  distance  across  the  rolling  prairies 
of  Kansas  to  the  Arkansas,  up  that  stream  to  Bent's  Fort 
(near  La  Junta),  then  over  the  Raton  Pass,  and  on  through 
Apache  Canyon  to  Santa  Fe  the  railroad  is  seldom  out  of 
sight  of  the  Trail.  The  Southern  Pacific  coming  east 
followed  first  the  Gila  Trail,  then  Cooke's  wagon  road,  and 
dropped  south  to  find  its  way  through  the  mountains  at 
the  El  Paso  water  gap — the  line  of  the  Butterfield  Over- 
land Stage  and  the  San  Antonio  and  San  Diego  Mail 
(sec.  199). 

227.  The  Beginning  of  a  New  Era.  —  No  other  event 
has    so    completely   transformed   the   whole    face   of   New 
Mexican   life   as   did  the   coming  of   the  railroads.     The 
Territory  was  now  in  touch  with  the  great  outside  world. 
A  great  army  of  pushing,  energetic  Americans   from  all 
parts    of    the    United    States,    and    particularly    from   the 
frontier  regions  of  the  West,  followed  the  railroad,  estab- 
lished large  ranches,  started  new  enterprises,  opened  new 
mines,  and  built  new  towns.     Thousands  of  home  seekers, 
health  seekers,  and  business  men,  scores  of  lawyers,  and 
hordes  of  speculators  followed.   The  value  of  land  increased, 
new    counties    were   created,   and    new    courthouses    built. 
Progress  and  change  were  in  the  air. 

228.  New  Problems.  —  The  railroads  had  ushered  in  a 
new  era  of  progress  and  development,  but  they  had  brought 
with  them  new  problems  to  disturb  the  Territory  for  years 
to  come.    From  California,  Colorado,  Texas,  and  the  States 
to  the  east,  hordes  of  gamblers,  saloon  keepers,  thieves, 
highwaymen,  and  desperate  characters  of  all  kinds  flocked 
in.    The  towns  at  the  end  of  the  railroad  line  as  it  moved 
on    from   Raton   to  Las  Vegas,   Lamy,   Albuquerque,   and 


IQ4  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

southward  were,  one  after  another,  the  chief  centers  of 
operations  of  this  criminal  element ;  and  when  the  road  was 
completed,  these  characters  continued  to  infest  the  towns 
and  some  of  the  remote  country  districts.  Every  session 
of  court  was  now  burdened  with  criminal  trials ;  jails  were 
crowded;  and  it  was  no  accident  that  the  penitentiary  was 
established  in  1882.  It  came  to  serve  a  real  need. 

This  reign  of  crime  gradually  passed  as  the  Territorial 
government  became  accustomed  to  dealing  with  it.  But 
the  railroads  brought  still  other  problems  of  a  more  per- 
manent nature.  Facilities  for  transportation  had  suddenly 
jumped  from  the  prairie  trail  to  the  modern  railroad  with- 
out the  Territory  having  any  system  of  highways.  It 
looked  like  extreme  good  fortune;  but  none  of  these  rail- 
ways was  built  for  the  sake  of  New  Mexico.  They  were 
part  of  a  great  policy  of  connecting  the  Mississippi  Valley 
with  the  Pacific  coast ;  and  New  Mexico  happened  to  be 
on  the  way.  Their  chief  business  was  one,  of  through  freight 
and  long  hauls.  The  few  hundred  tons  of  eastern  goods 
that  they  brought  to  New  Mexico  and  th-e  annual  wool  and 
cattle  crop  that  they  hauled  east  were  insignificant  parts  of 
their  business.  Besides,  there  was  no  competition  by  water 
or  other  means  of  transportation,  and  the  roads  were  not 
slow  to  see  that  they  had  a  complete  monopoly  along 
practically  every  mile  of  their  lines  and  could  charge  all 
that  the  traffic  would  bear,  grant  lower  rates  to  favored 
shippers,  and  discriminate  against  some  towns  and  favor 
others. 

II.    THE  LIVE-STOCK  INDUSTRY 

229.  The  First  Source  of  Wealth.  —  Stock  raising  was 
the  great  historic  industry  from  which  the  Spanish  colonists 
had  regularly  produced  whatever  of  wealth  they  had  en- 


RAILROADS  AND   ECONOMIC  DEVELOPMENT 


195 


joyed.  In  days  when  there  were  no  railroads  or  other 
means  of  transportation,  sheep  and  "  longhorns  "  had  the 
advantage  of  being  able  to  transport  themselves  to  market, 
first  to  Chihuahua  and  elsewhere  in  northern  Mexico, 
and  later  over  the  cattle  trails  northeastward  to  Newton, 
Fort  Dodge,  and  other  points  as  the  railroads  came  west. 


RAMBOUILLETTS  ON  THE  RANGE 

230.  Sheep  Raising.  —  Sheep  raising  had  been  the  prin- 
cipal branch  of  the  live-stock  business  and  was  the  chief 
source  of  New  Mexican  wealth  in  the  first  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Sheep  numbered  375,000  in  1850  as 
against  only  33,000  cattle;  and  that  proportion  continued 
with  but  little  change  for  the  next  thirty  years,  though 
the  numbers  multiplied  many  fold.  All  the  rich  men  in 
the  country  at  the  time  of  the  American  Occupation,  except 
a  few  merchants,  were  the  "  sheep  kings  "  —  men  whose 


THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 


great  herds  of  sheep  enabled  them  to  enjoy  such  luxuries 
as  were  obtainable  and  to  send  their  sons  to  St.  Louis  or 
elsewhere  for  an  education. 

With  markets  far  away  and  transportation  lacking,  the 
production  of  wool  and  mutton  was  no  get-rich-quick  enter- 
prise to  tempt  the  speculator  looking  for  sudden  wealth, 
but  it  was  a  safe  business  for  the  man  who  was  content  with 
slow  but  steady  gains.  The  range  was  free,  and  herding 
was  not  expensive. 

231.  The  Cattle  Boom.— Down 
to  1880  the  absence  of  amarket 
had  made  any  great  boom  in  the 
live-stock  industry  impossible. 
Cattle  raising,  like  the  sheep 
business,  had  been  carried  on  by 
private  individuals,  with  the  open 
government  lands  as  free  range. 
There  was  an  occasional  "  cattle 
king,"  like  John  S.  Chisum,  who 
moved  into  the  Pecos  Valley  from 
Texas  in  the  beginning  of  the 
seventies  and  soon  had  herds 
numbering  sixty  to  seventy-five 
thousand,  some  of  which  he  marketed  at  Fort  Dodge  and 
other  points  on  the  westward-moving  railroads. 

Such  men  pointed  the  way  and  fired  the  imagination  of 
the  newcomers  just  at  the  time  when  the  railroad  was 
coming  in  to  create  new  conditions  and  open  an  eastern 
market.  An  era  of  wild  speculation  in  the  cattle  business 
followed.  Capital  from  the  eastern  States  and  even  from 
Europe  was  induced  to  enter  the  field.  New  cattle  com- 
panies were  organized  to  buy  up  the  land  along  the  streams 


JOHN  S.  CHISUM 
"CATTLE  KING" 


RAILROADS  AND   ECONOMIC   DEVELOPMENT          197 

and  stock  it  with  herds  to  be  increased  from  year  to  year. 
The  eighties  was  the  first  age  of  "  cattle  kings."  Soon 
the  ranges  were  overstocked,  and  dry  seasons  brought 
heavy  losses  with  resulting  financial  disaster  to  the  com- 
panies. The  last  of  the  eighties  was  a  period  of  depression 
in  the  whole  live-stock  industry,  sheep  as  well  as  cattle. 

232.  Recent  Development.  —  A  succession  of  good 
seasons  in  the  early  nineties,  however,  brought  new  pros- 
perity on  the  ranges  and  by  1894  the  wool  crop  amounted 
to  sixteen  million  pounds.  The  amount  has  not  greatly 
increased  since  that  time,  but  better  care  and  the  intro- 
duction of  better  breeds  of  sheep  has  greatly  increased 
the  amount  of  wool  produced  per  head,  and  the  rising  price 
of  wool  has  multiplied  the  annual  value  of  the  crop  many 
fold.  Though  sheep  raising  is  carried  on  all  over  the 
State,  Valencia,  Socorro,  Union,  and  Chaves  are  the  leading 
countries. 

In  the  cattle  business  similar  changes  have  been  taking 
place.  The  movement  for  the  introduction  of  better 
stock  and  the  grading  up  of  herds  has  been  general;  and 
since  about  1900  the  "  longhorn  "  is  becoming  a  mere 
memory.  His  place  has  been  taken  by  the  Hereford  and 
the  Shorthorn.  Both  the  quality  and  the  quantity  of 
beef  per  head  has  been  increased  and  the  price  has  risen, 
as  in  the  case  of  sheep  and  wool.  The  cattle  business, 
less  general  than  sheep  raising,  has  its  two  big  centers  in 
the  Pecos  Valley  in  the  southeast  and  in  Grant,  Catron,  and 
Socorro  counties  in  the  southwest. 

A  great  change  is  coming  over  the  methods  employed 
in  the  stock  business.  As  increasing  settlement  has 
gradually  restricted  the  ranges,  the  old  cheap,  but  wasteful, 
open  range  is  rapidly  giving  way  to  the  wire  fence  around 


ig8  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

land  owned  or  leased ;  and  the  production  of  forage  crops 
for  carrying  stock  over  dry  seasons  and  severe  winters  is 
both  saving  the  stockman  from  many  heavy  losses  and 
increasing  the  numbers  that  can  be  grown  on  a  given  area 
of  land. 

233.  Dairying.  —  At  the  same  time  a  new  branch  of  the 
live-stock  business  is  coming  into  prominence.     Dairying 
as    a    commercial    enterprise,    except    around    the    towns 
and  cities,   has  only  made    its    appearance    since    about 
1910 ;  but  it  is  already  established  and  is  rapidly  increasing 
in  importance.     The  principal  dairying  regions  are  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  the  State,  particularly  Union  County, 
and   in   the   Mesilla   Valley,   below   the   Elephant  Butte 
Dam. 

III.     MINING  AND   MANUFACTURING 

234.  Mining  in  Spanish  and  Mexican  Times.  —  Much 
has  been  written  about  ancient  mining  operations  in  New 
Mexico.     But  we  have  evidence  of  very  little  mining  during 
Spanish  and  Mexican  times.     The  Santa  Rita  copper  mine 
and  the  mica  mines  near  Santa  Fe  and  Mora  (sec.  106)  were 
two  important  exceptions.     One  other  ancient  enterprise 
should  be  added.     At  Los  Cerrillos,  near  Santa  Fe,  the 
Pueblo   Indians  were  working   the   turquoise  mines  long 
before   the  Spaniards  came  to   the  country.     With  rude 
stone  sledges,  without  the  aid  of  iron,  steel,  or  explosives, 
they  broke  away  huge  masses  of  rock  in  search  of  the 
fascinating   ornament   which,    to    their   minds,    possessed 
some   vague    supernatural   power.     These    are    the    most 
important  turquoise  mines  in  the  world  and  have  been 
worked  to  some  extent  by  the  Spaniards  ever  since  they 
came  to  the  country. 


RAILROADS  AND   ECONOMIC   DEVELOPMENT 


199 


235.  Mining  in  the  Early  American  Period.  —  When  the 
American  army  came  to  New  Mexico  in  1846,  gold  mining  at 
the  "  New  Placers  "  (discovered  in  1826)  south  of  Santa 
Fe  was  being  carried  on  as  extensively  as  the  lack  of  ma- 
chinery and  shortage  of  water  would  permit.     During  the 
winter  season,  when  water  was  more  plentiful,  many  hun- 
dreds of  people  would  gather  at  the  "  diggings."     There 
was  no  record,  however,  of  anybody  having  become  rich 
at     it,      though 

many  had  sunk 
everything  they 
had  in  the  ven- 
ture. Through 
the  fifties  and 
sixties  there  was 
much  prospect- 
ing, but  very 
little  actual 
development. 
Capital  was  still 
scarce ;  transpor- 
tation, except 
over  the  Trail,  totally  lacking;  and  the  Indians,  a 
constant  menace. 

236.  The    First    Mining    Boom.  —  When    the    railroad 
came,  in  1879,  it  brought  prospectors  and  capitalists,  and 
furnished  the  transportation  facilities  necessary  for  bringing 
in  modern  mining  machinery  and  shipping  out  the  products. 
In  1879-1880  the  first  great  mining  boom  began.     The 
early  eighties  saw  great  prosperity  and  rapid  development. 
In  1883  the  mines  were  turning  out  $4,000,000  in  gold  and 
silver  alone,  and  by  1886,  $6,000,000. 


THE  "ROCKER"  IN  A  MINING  CAMP 


200  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

Silver  was  so  much  the  largest  item  in  this  new  stream 
of  mineral  wealth  that  when  the  "  free-silver  "  agitation 
began  in  the  West,  New  Mexico  took  up  the  cause ;  and  in 
January,  1891,  the  legislature  passed  a  resolution,  drawn 
by  Governor  Prince,  urging  Congress  to  provide  for  the 
"  free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver  .  .  .  upon  an  equality 
with  gold,"  because  the  gold  standard,  "  resulting  in  the 
hoarding  of  the  nation's  wealth  in  the  financial  centers, 
and  placing  the  country  under  tribute  to  Wall  Street,  is 
rapidly  paralyzing  the  industries  of  this  Territory,  causing 
stagnation  in  all  business  enterprises,  and  can  not  but 
result  disastrously  to  our  every  interest  .  .  ." 

237.  Modern  Mining.  —  But  the  disasters  did  not  follow. 
Instead,  the  early  nineties  proved  to  be  a  period  of  great 
prosperity,  particularly  in  the  mining  industry. 

The  State  is  rich  in  minerals  of  almost  every  kind.  In 
coal  it  is  perhaps  the  richest  in  the '  Southwest.  While 
California,  Arizona,  Texas,  and  Mexico  are  without  any 
known  deposits  of  coking  coal,  New  Mexico  has  it  in 
immense  quantities.  The  present  chief  centers  of  coal 
production  are  in  Colfax  and  McKinley  counties ;  but 
there  are  large  deposits  in  Lincoln,  Valencia,  and  Socorro 
counties,  and  the  San  Juan  Basin,  with  over  thirteen  thou- 
sand square  miles  of  coal  land  practically  untouched,  is 
likely  to  become  the  greatest  coal  field  in  the  West  when 
proper  railroad  facilities  are  provided  for  opening  it  up. 

There  are  also  immense  beds  of  iron  ore  in  Lincoln, 
Sierra,  and  Socorro  counties ;  and  in  the  latter  county,  at 
least,  they  lie  side  by  side  with  great  beds  of  coking  coal. 
With  transportation  facilities  increasing  and  business 
conditions  becoming  more  stable,  the  day  is  coming  nearer 
when  New  Mexico  will  be  the  center  of  a  great  iron  industry. 


RAILROADS   AND   ECONOMIC  DEVELOPMENT          2OI 


MODERN  STEAM  SHOVEL  OPERATIONS,  SANTA.  RITA  COPPER  MINES 

The  leading  copper-producing  region  is  ,in  Grant  and 
Hidalgo  counties,  though  there  are  important  fields  in 
Otero,  Dona  Ana,  Santa  Fe,  Socorro,  Catron,  and  Valencia 


202  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

counties.  Colfax  (the  Elizabethtown  district)  leads  in  the 
production  of  gold,  followed  by  Grant  and  Socorro.  The 
Mogollon  district  in  Catron  County  is  the  center  of  silver 
production,  with  Lordsburg  in  Hidalgo  County  second. 
Socorro  County  (the  Kelly  district)  leads  in  zinc  production, 
with  other  important  fields  in  Grant,  Luna,  and  Santa  Fe. 

238.  Manufacturing.  —  Though  the  capital  invested  in 
manufacturing  in  the  State  has  multiplied  many   times 
over  in  recent  years,  the  whole  industry  is  still  in  its  in- 
fancy.    The  shops  of  the  various  railroad  companies  take 
first  rank;    and  after  them  come  lumber,  printing,  and 
milling.     In  the  White  Mountains,  the  Zuiii  Mountains, 
and  elsewhere  in  the  northwest  are  large  forests  of  available 
timber  for  the  manufacture  of  lumber. 

IV.     DEVELOPMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

239.  Historic  Importance  of  Agriculture.  —  Agriculture, 
particularly     small-scale     intensive     gardening,     is     New 
Mexico's    most    ancient    industry.     When    the    Spaniards 
first  came  to  the  country,  the  Pueblo  Indians  were  produc- 
ing most  of  their  living  from  their  cornfields  irrigated  from 
flowing  streams  or  primitive  reservoirs,  and  from  gardens 
frequently  irrigated  with  water  carried  by  human  hands 
(sees.  7,  8).     Through  Spanish  and  Mexican  times  agri- 
culture continued  to  be  one  of  the  chief  means  of  pro- 
ducing a  living,   though  never  a   large-scale  industry  of 
commercial  importance.     The  beginning  of  the  American 
period  brought  no  great  change.     Sheep  and  cattle  raising 
furnished  an  easier  method  of  acquiring  a  steady  income 
in  the  open  country;    commerce  and  mining  furnished 
better  ventures  for  those  who  had  a  taste  for  speculative 
undertakings. 


RAILROADS  AND   ECONOMIC   DEVELOPMENT         203 

After  the  coming  of  the  railroads  more  and  more  of  the 
newcomers  were  of  the  settler  class  who  had  come  to  build 
homes.  Many  of  them  had  been  farmers  in  other  States. 
Here  were  all  the  conditions  for  the  building  up  of  a  large 
farming  industry  —  a  rapidily  increasing  population  to  be 
fed,  the  resulting  high  prices  for  farm  products,  and  an 


APPLE  ORCHARD  IN  BLOOM,  PECOS  VALLEY 

increasing  element  of  farmers.  By  the  end  of  the  century 
agriculture  was  entering  on  its  first  period  of  large-scale 
production. 

240.  Development  of  the  Pecos  Valley.  —  All  the 
southeastern  part  of  the  State,  embraced  in  Lincoln  County 
until  the  Pecos  Valley  country  was  organized  into  the 
counties  of  Eddy  and  Chaves  in  1889,  was  a  great  grazing 


204  THE   HISTORY   OF   NEW    MEXICO 

country,  with  no  agricultural  possibilities  because  of  the 
absence  of  a  market  until  the  nineties.  The  census  of 
1880  showed  that  out  of  a  total  population  of  2,500  in  all 
this  vast  region  (Lincoln  County),  2,300  were  native-born 
New  Mexicans.  Immigration  into  this  region  had  hardly 
begun,  and  consisted  of  the  few  cattlemen  who  were  drift- 
ing up  the  Pecos  River,  attracted  by  the  fine  lands  of  the 
valley. 

Roswell  was  a  village  of  a  few  hundred  inhabitants, 
freighting  all  their  supplies  overland  from  Las  Vegas. 
Carlsbad  (then  called  Eddy),  a  little  nearer  to  the  Texas 
and  Pacific  Railroad  at  Pecos,  Texas,  got  its  supplies  from 
that  point.  The  possibilities  of  the  region,  however,  were 
so  great  that  capitalists  became  interested,  and  in  1889  the 
Pecos  Valley  and  Northeastern  Railroad  began  building 
north  from  Pecos,  Texas,  toward  the  New  Mexico  line. 
The  completion  of  this  road  to  Carlsbad  (1891)  and  Roswell 
(1894)  gave  the  valley  easy  communication  to  the  south- 
east and  brought  many  settlers  especially  from  Texas. 
Then  in  1898-1899  the  road  was  built  from  Roswell  to 
Amarillo,  opening  railway  communication  with  the  Middle 
West. 

The  Pecos  Valley,  therefore,  isolated  from  the  rest  of 
the  Territory  and  enjoying  easy  railroad  connection  with 
the  States  to  the  east,  drew  its  population  from  those 
States  and  developed  a  life  of  its  own  quite  separate  and 
apart  from  the  rest  of  New  Mexico  until  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century  (sec.  249) . 

241.  Artesian  Wells  and  Irrigation.  —  In  the  nineties  the 
railroad  brought  population  to  the  valley,  and  its  agri- 
cultural development  began.  The  first  irrigation  proj- 
ect along  the  Pecos  River  near  Carlsbad,  in  what  is  now 


RAILROADS  AND   ECONOMIC   DEVELOPMENT         205 

Eddy  County,  had  been  begun  in  1888  by  Charles  W.  Eddy 
and  Pat  F.  Garrett;  and  with  the  discovery  of  great 
quantities  of  artesian  water  at  Roswell  in  1890,  the  agri- 
cultural prospects  of  the  Pecos  Valley  grew  bright.  Such 
thriving  places  as  Carlsbad,  Artesia,  Hagerman,  Roswell, 


FLOWING  ARTESIAN  WELL  IN  THE  PECOS  VALLEY 

Por tales,  and  Clovis  bear  abundant  evidence  of  the  progress 
of  the  agricultural  interests  in  the  valley  and  of  the  stock- 
raising  industry  on  the  near-by  plains  and  mountains. 

242.  The  San  Juan  Basin.  —  Far  away  in  the  opposite 
corner  of  the  State  another  new  and  remote  agricultural 
region  was  growing  up  without  any  railroad  connection 
toward  the  capital.  The  San  Juan  Basin  had  been  well 
known  to  the  Spaniards  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  was 


206  THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

on  the  Spanish  Trail  regularly  followed  by  both  New 
Mexicans  and  Americans  throughout  the  middle  period 
of  the  nineteenth ;  but  it  was  one  of  those  regions  into 
which  Spanish  settlement  had  never  gone.  Now  in  the 
late  sixties  and  the  seventies  the  sheep  and  cattle  men 
began  to  move  in  and  take  possession  of  that  fine  grazing 
country.  Many  of  them  had  fled  from  Lincoln  and  Colfax 
counties  as  law  and  order  began  to  gain  control  in  those 
regions.  The  San  Juan  country,  into  which  courts  and 
courthouses  and  sheriffs  had  not  yet  gone,  offered  a  new 
field  for  their  wild  and  lawless  operations.  Cattle  "  rus- 
tling "  became  a  regular  means  of  livelihood  to  many  of 
the  newcomers  —  except  when  it  led  to  the  ending  of 
life. 

243.  San  Juan  County.  —  Even  in  that  remote  region, 
however,  the  "  bad  men  "  were  not  to  be  left  long  in  control. 
In  1887  the  legislature  organized  the  San  Juan  Basin  into 
San  Juan  County.     Then  came  the  law,  the  western  sheriff, 
and  many  pioneer  settlers.     The  old  days  quickly  passed. 
The  building  of  the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande  Railroad  from 
Durango  to  Farmington  in   1905   gave  easy  communica- 
tion with  the  outside  world. 

Fine  agricultural  land  and  the  largest  water  supply  in 
the  State  available  for  irrigation  are  the  basic  resources 
out  of  which  San  Juan  is  developing  a  great  farming  in- 
dustry. It  is  already  the  State's  largest  fruit-producing 
region.  Grain  and  stock  are  the  other  important  crops. 

244.  Development  of  the  East  Side.  —  Like  the  Pecos 
Valley  and  the  San  Juan  country,  other  new  agricultural 
regions  have  grown  up  rapidly  along  the  east  side  of  the 
State.     Lea,  Roosevelt,  Curry,  Quay,  Harding,  and  Union 
are  all  new  counties  with  large  and  growing  agricultural 


RAILROADS   AND    ECONOMIC    DEVELOPMENT         207 

interests.  This  whole  eastern  tier  of  counties  that  are 
now  producing  many  millions  in  crops  each  year  were 
roamed  over  by  sheep  and  cattle  and  hardly  known  to  any 
other  industry  prior  to  1900. 

245.  Agriculture  the  State's  Chief  Industry.  —  At  the 
same  time  the  older  sections  of  the  State  have  been  develop- 
ing and  expanding  their  farming  areas.  More  land  has 
been  brought  under  cultivation  by  the  construction  of 
larger  diversion  dams  and  better  systems  of  ditches.  Sec- 
tions on  the  smaller  streams  formerly  unused  have  been 
occupied  by  new  settlers  and  developed  in  the  same  way. 
But  this  process  of  irrigation  from  flowing  streams  left 
many  fertile  valleys  without  water  for  agricultural  develop- 
ment. To  meet  this  need  both  the  government  and 
private  corporations  have  begun  the  building  of  huge 
dams  and  reservoirs  for  holding  the  flood  waters  of  the 
rainy  seasons  for  use  in  dry  periods  and  for  raising  the 
water  level  so  that  wider  regions  may  be  irrigated. 

246.  Elephant  Butte  Dam.  —  Three  of  these  irrigation 
projects  are  under  the  control  of  the  United  States  Rec- 
lamation Service :  The  Hondo  Project  near  Roswell, 
the  Carlsbad  Project,  and  the  Elephant  Butte  Project. 

The  Elephant  Butte  Dam  (officially  the  "  Wilson  Dam  ") 
across  the  Rio  Grande  in  Sierra  County  is  of  sufficient 
magnitude  to  make  it  a  matter  of  more  than  local  interest. 
The  original  plan  for  building  at  this  point,  in  the  nineties, 
was  a  private  enterprise  promoted  by  Dr.  Nathan  E. 
Boyd,  of  Las  Cruces,  and  financed  largely  by  English 
capital ;  but  it  was  effectively  blocked  by  the  political 
influence  of  a  syndicate  of  real  estate  speculators  at  El 
Paso,  Texas,  and  Juarez,  Mexico.  Their  daring  scheme 
for  an  "  international  dam  "  at  El  Paso  would  have  robbed 


208  THE  HISTORY   OF  NEW  MEXICO 

southern  New  Mexico  of  its  biggest  water  rights.  The 
whole  scheme  was  built  on  the  flimsy  pretense  that  the 
Elephant  Butte  project  would  interfere  with  the  "  navi- 
gation "  of  the  Rio  Grande.  Absurd  as  it  was,  it  caused 
enough  trouble  to  wreck  the  original  enterprise. 


(1 


IL 

THE  ELEPHANT  BUTTE  DAM 

Then,  with  the  camouflage  cleared  away  and  no  large 
number  of  vessels  "  navigating  "  the  shifting  quicksands 
of  the  Rio  Grande,  the  United  States  Department  of  the 
Interior  built  (1910-1916),  at  a  cost  of  about  $10,000,000, 
a  great  reenforced  concrete  dam  more  than  two  hundred 
feet  high  across  the  Rio  Grande  from  hill  to  hill,  strong 
enough  to  hold  back  a  lake  of  water  forty-five  miles  long 
and  large  enough  to  store  all  the  waters  of  the  river  for  a 
year.  This  lake  has  a  capacity  of  2,600,000  acre-feet  of 


RAILROADS   AND   ECONOMIC   DEVELOPMENT 


209 


water  —  double  the  capacity  of  the  Roosevelt  Dam  in 
Arizona.  Below  it  are  the  broad  Rincon,  Mesilla,  and  El 
Paso  valleys  with  nearly  two  hundred  thousand  acres  of 
land  to  be  brought  under  irrigation. 

247.    Settling   the  Land  Question.  —  In  1854  Congress 
extended  American  land  laws  to  the  Territory,  providing  a 


HARVEST  TIME  IN  THE  PECOS  VALLEY 

free  homestead  of  a  hundred  and  sixty  acres  and  setting 
aside  two  sections  (16  and  36)  in  each  township  for  schools. 
The  office  of  surveyor  general  was  created  at  the  same  time. 
In  the  old  settled  regions  much  of  the  best  land  had 
been  reduced  to  private  ownership  under  Spanish  and 
Mexican  grants  or  by  constant  occupation  for  generations 
back.  The  government  undertook  to  investigate  the  titles 
to  all  these  lands.  Some  holders  refused  to  bring  their 
papers  into  court ;  others  did  not  have  the  money  to  pay 
the  fees;  and  all  regarded  the  process  as  needless  inter- 
ference in  their  private  affairs.  Consequently  many  of 


210  THE   HISTORY   OF   NEW   MEXICO 

the  grants  remained  unconfirmed  until  after  the  coming 
of  the  railroads.  Then  homesteaders  began  to  "  take  up  J1 
and  "  hold  down  "  their  claims  in  complete  disregard  of 
the  old  grants. 

Many  of  the  grants  were  genuine ;  others  were  of  doubt- 
ful origin  and  of  still  more  doubtful  size  and  boundaries; 
while  still  others  rested  on  out-and-out  forgery  and  fraud. 
When  a  "  white  rock  "  or  a  "  red  hill  "  was  an  important 
boundary  mark,  it  was  always  possible  to  find  such  an  object 
a  few  miles  farther  on.  One  judge  wittily  remarked  that 
in  this  fine  climate,  "  not  only  does  vegetation  thrive 
and  grow  to  enormous  size  by  irrigation,  but  that  land 
grants  themselves  grow  immensely  —  without  irrigation." 

248.  The  Court  of  Private  Land  Claims.  —  To  meet  this 
situation  in  New  Mexico  and  a  similar  one  in  other  States 
within  the  territory  acquired  from  Mexico  in   1848  and 
1853,  Congress  created  the  United  States  Court  of  Private 
Land  Claims  (1891),  composed  of  five  distinguished  judges 
from  different  sections  of  the  country,  and  provided  with  a 
large  corps  of  translators,  attorneys,  and  experts  in  Spanish 
and  Mexican  land  law  and  government.     When  it  finished 
its  work  and  went  out  of  existence  in  1904,  it  had  confirmed 
the  title  to  almost  two  million  acres  of  grant  lands  and 
had  rejected  nearly  thirty-three  million  acres  within  the 
Territory,  besides  smaller  amounts  in  Arizona,  Colorado, 
and  elsewhere. 

249.  Better  Railroad  Communication.  —  After  the  com- 
ing of  the  Santa  Fe  and  the  Southern  Pacific  (sees.  224, 
225),  railroad  building  in  the  Territory  stood  still  for  a 
decade,  until  the  Pecos  Valley  and  Northeastern  (now  part 
of  the  Santa  Fe  System)  began  to  build  from  Pecos,  Texas, 
in  1889,  up  the  Pecos  Valley,  and  out  toward  Amarillo, 


RAILROADS   AND    ECONOMIC    DEVELOPMENT         21 1 

Texas.  Finally,  near  the  end  of  the  century,  the  Rock 
Island  built  in  from  the  northeast;  and  in  1901  the  El 
Paso  and  Northeastern  (now  the  El  Paso  and  South- 
western), which  had  been  begun  at  El  Paso  in  1897,  met 
the  Rock  Island  at  Santa  Rosa  and  opened  another  through 
line. 

So  far  the  railroad  lines  tended  to  parallel  each  other 
in  a  general  northeast  and  southwest  direction,  leaving  each 
of  these  long  regions  isolated  from  the  other.  The  first 
break  in  this  isolation  came  in  1903  with  the  opening  of  the 
Santa  Fe  Central  (now  New  Mexico  Central)  from  the 
capital  to  Torrance,  giving  railroad  communication  be- 
tween the  central  Rio  Grande  Valley  and  the  new  eastern 
region  opened  up  by  the  Rock  Island  and  the  El  Paso  and 
Northeastern.  Two  years  later  (1905)  the  Dawson  Rail- 
way was  completed  from  Tucumcari  to  Dawson,  and  the 
El  Paso  and  Southwestern,  recently  built  into  El  Paso 
from  Arizona,  bought  this  line  and  the  El  Paso  and  North- 
eastern to  Santa  Rosa.  Then  in  1907  it  bought  the  Rock 
Island  road  from  Santa  Rosa  to  Tucumcari,  thus  completing 
its  line  from  its  Dawson  coal  fields  to  its  copper  mines  in 
southeastern  Arizona. 

Finally  in  1909  the  Santa  Fe  System  completed  the  Belen 
Cut-Off  from  its  main  line  south  of  Albuquerque  to  Clovis  on 
the  Pecos  Valley  line,  reaching  another  isolated  region  and 
bringing  the  Pecos  Valley  and  east  side  more  directly  into 
the  current  of  the  Territory's  political,  social,  and  economic 
life  just  as  statehood  was  coming. 

GENERAL   READINGS 

H.  H.  BANCROFT,  History  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  748-778. 
L.  B.  PRINCE,  .4  Concise  History  of  New  Mexico,  191-219. 
R.  E.  TWITCHELL,  The  Leading  Facts  of  XKC  Mexican  History,  II,  280- 
606,  III-V;  a  great  store  of  scattered  information. 


212  THE   HISTORY   OF   NEW   MEXICO 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

The  class  should  work  up,  on  the  cooperative  plan,  the  development  of 
its  own  locality.  Material  will  be  found  in  local  publications,  the  Report 
of  the  United  States  Census,  the  New  Mexico  Blue  Book,  Reports  of  Gover- 
nors and  other  State  officials,  and  in  Twitchell's  The  Leading  Facts  of  New 
Mexican  History,  especially  III  and  IV. 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Why  was  the  failure  to  build  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  in  the 
sixties  a  great  calamity  to  New  Mexico? 

2.  What  were  the  conditions  of  travel  and  communication  prior  to  1880? 
When  did  the  telegraph  reach  New  Mexico? 

3.  Why  did  the  overland  trade  increase  rapidly  ?     Why  did  it  not  grow 
more  rapidly? 

4.  Draw  a  map  showing  the  railroads  in  New  Mexico  in  1881.     Why 
did  they  follow  the  old  trails? 

5.  What  influence  did  the  roads  have?     What  new  problems  did  they 
bring? 

6.  Why  was  stock  raising  the  earliest  industry  of  commercial  importance  ? 
Why  did  the  first  cattle  boom  not  come  until  after  1880?     Who  was  John 
S.  Chisum? 

7.  What  important  changes  are  taking  place  in  the  live-stock  business? 
What  are  the  principal  dairying  sections? 

8.  What  do  we  know  about  mining  in  Spanish  and  Mexican  times?     In 
the  early  American  period? 

9.  When  was  the  first  mining  boom?     Why?    What  influence  did  silver 
production  have  on  political  opinion  in  the  Territory?     Illustrate. 

10.  Draw  a  map  showing  the  principal  mining  regions  of  the  State. 
Different  colors  may  be  used  to  indicate  different  minerals. 

11.  What  is  the  State's  oldest  industry?     Why  did  it  not  become  a 
large-scale  industry  as  early  as  stock  raising? 

12.  Why  were  the  Pecos  Valley  and  the  San  Juan  Basin  late  in  develop- 
ing?    Why   have   they  grown    rapidly  in  recent  years  ?       What  are  the 
chief  industries  of  each? 

13.  Discuss  the  importance  of  irrigation  in  the  State.     Why  was  the  dis- 
covery of  artesian  water  at  Roswell  in  1890  a  great  event? 

14.  What  government  irrigation  projects  are  there  in  the  State?     Give 
an  account  of  the  Elephant  Butte  Project. 

15.  What  was  the  land  question  to  be  settled?     How  had  titles  to  land 
been  secured?    Why  was  settlement  more  difficult  in  the  nineties  than  it 
would  have  been  soon  after  the  American  Occupation? 

16.  What  was  the  United  States  Court  of  Private  Land  Claims? 

17.  Draw  a  railroad -map  of  the  State  for  the  year  1901.    Then  add  to  it 
in  a  different  color  the  Santa  F£  Central,  the  Daws  n  Railway,  and  the 
Belen  Cut-Off,  and  show  the  special  importance  of  these  roads  built  in 
1903-1909. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

EDUCATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT   SINCE    1860 

250.  Educational  Conditions  in  1850.  —  At  the  beginning 
of  the  American  period  educational  conditions  in  New 
Mexico  were  at  low  ebb.  Most  of  the  missionaries  were 
gone ;  and  for  many  years  the  government  had  been  shifting 
and  unstable.  Population  was  sparse,  distances  were  great, 
good  roads  were  unknown,  savage  Indians  were  roaming 
everywhere.  In  abject  poverty  the  masses  of  the  people 
were  struggling  for  bare  existence.  Only  the  sons  of  the 
few  wealthy  families  were  educated ;  and  even  these  favored 
individuals  had  been  compelled  to  make  the  long  overland 
journey  to  St.  Louis  or  elsewhere  in  the  United  States 
or  Mexico.  As  a  rule,  girls  and  women  received  no  educa- 
tion at  all. 

In  December,  1847,  Governor  Vigil  reported  that  there 
was  but  one  public  school  in  the  Territory  and  that  there 
were  no  private  schools  or  academies.  The  census  of  1850 
indicated  that  about  seven-eighths  of  the  adult  population 
were  illiterate.  "In  no  part  of  the  United  States,"  said 
the  legislature  of  1853,  "  are  the  means  of  education  so 
deficient,  as  in  New  Mexico."  A  year  later  (1854)  they 
again  urged,  "  The  Territory  is  entirely  without  schools, 
except  in  the  capital,  in  which  there  is  one  or  two  supported 
by  private  subscription." 

213 


214 


THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 
I.    PRIVATE  SCHOOLS 


251.  Catholic  Schools,  1850-1870.  —  In  1851,  when 
Bishop  John  B.  Lamy  came  to  Santa  Fe  to  take  charge 
of  the  work  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  Territory,  he 
reported  the  churches  in  ruins  and  no  schools  at  all,  though 
it  appears  that  by  that  time  there  were  a  few  private  schools. 


ST.  MICHAEL'S   COLLEGE,   SANTA  F£ 

Reforms  were  badly  needed ;  and  Lamy  had  come  as  a 
reformer  believing  in  education  as  the  principal  agency 
for  getting  results.  The  very  year  of  his  arrival  (1851) 
he  established  a  free  English  school  in  Santa  Fe.  The  next 
year  (1852)  he  brought  in  five  Sisters  of  Loretto  and  began 
to  establish  convents  and  academies.  The  first  of  them 
was  the  Loretto  Academy  and  Convent  at  Santa  Fe, 
founded  January  i,  1853.  In  1859  he  brought  the  first 
Christian  Brothers  and  founded  St.  Michael's  College 


EDUCATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT   SINCE    1850 


215 


at  Santa  Fe.     The  founding  of   the  Jesuit  college  at  Las 
Vegas,  1877,  was  also  the  work  of  his  hands. 

By  1865,  he  was  able  to  report  that  he  had  thirty-seven 
earnest  priests  and  a  half  dozen  other  workers,  had  built 
forty-five  new  churches,  repaired  eighteen  or  twenty  others, 
and  had  laid  the  foundations  for  a  system  of  Catholic 
schools.  He  became  archbishop  in  1875,  and  continued  his 
labors  almost  to  the  time  of  his  death  in  1888.  Lamy  is 
the  great  name  in  Catholic  education  in  nineteenth  century 
New  Mexico. 

252.  Protestant 
Mission  Schools,  1850- 
1870.  -  -  Prior  to  the 
American  Occupation 
Catholic  missionaries 
had  the  New  Mexico 
field  all  to  themselves. 
After  the  close  of  the 
Mexican  War  Protestant 
missionaries  from  the 
United  States  began  to 
enter  the  field,  though 
for  many  years  they 
made  little  headway.  The 
Baptists  led  the  way,  es- 
tablishing the  first  Prot- 


FIRST  PROTESTANT  CHURCH   IN   NEW 

MEXICO,   SANTA  FE,   BUILT  BY 

THE  BAPTISTS,  1853 


estant  mission  school  in  Santa  Fe  in  1849  and  building  the 
first  Protestant  church  in  1853.  The  Methodists  follow- 
ed and  established  a  school  in  Santa  Fe  in  1850,  but  closed 
it  in  1852  and  did  very  little  until  the  seventies.  The  Pres- 
byterians came  in  1851,  but  accomplished  nothing  until 
the  Civil  War,  when  they  bought  the  property  of  the  Bap- 


2l6  THE   HISTORY  OE   NEW   MEXICO 

tists  in  Santa  Fe  in  1866  and  sarted  a  mission  school  there 
the  next  year.  Episcopalians  followed  in  1863;  and  Con- 
gregationalists,  in  1878.  They  all  established  mission 
schools  as  a  leading  part  of  their  work. 

Just  as  the  railroad  was  coming  the  Congregationalists 
established  an  academy  at  Santa  Fe  in  1878  and  others  at 
Las  Vegas  and  Albuquerque  the  following  year,  to  be  con- 
ducted by  the  New  West  Education  Commission,  which, 
in  1 88 1,  incorporated  a  private  school  at  Santa  Fe  known 
as  the  "  University  of  New  Mexico." 

Such  institutions  as  the  Menaul  School  (Presbyterian), 
the  Rio  Grande  Industrial  School  (Congregationalist),  and 
the  Harwood  Industrial  School  (Methodist)  are  good 
modern  examples  of  Protestant  missionary  work  in  educa- 
tion. 

II.    ATTEMPTS  AT  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 

253.  No  Help  from  Congress.  —  Although  Catholics 
and  Protestants  alike  were  establishing  schools  in  various 
parts  of  the  Territory,  the  rising  generation  was  still  grow- 
ing up  in  ignorance.  Moreover,  the  feeling  of  public 
responsibility  for  education  was  not  so  strong  in  the  United 
States  then  as  it  has  become  in  recent  times,  and  the 
American  Congress  proved  to  be  as  neglectful  of  education 
in  New  Mexico  as  Spain  and  Mexico  had  been. 

If  Congress  had  risen  to  the  moral  opportunity  for 
establishing  an  American  school  system  in  New  Mexico 
then  as  it  did  fifty  years  later  in  the  Philippines  and  Porto 
Rico,  New  Mexico  might  have  entered  the  Union  as  one  of 
the  wealthiest  and  most  progressive  States.  But  Congress 
failed,  and  New  Mexico  has  had  to  work  out  her  own 
educational  salvation. 


EDUCATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT   SINCE    1850  217 

254.  The  First  Step,   1856.  —  In  February,   1856,  the 
legislature  attempted  to  lay  the  foundations  for  the  begin- 
ning of  a  public  school  system  supported  by  direct  public 
taxation  at  the  rate  of  one  dollar  per  thousand  and  exempt- 
ing property  owned  in  excess  of  fifty  thousand  dollars. 
Even  with  this  concession  to  the  wealthy  few,  such  a  storm 
of  protest  went  up  in  Socorro,  Santa  Ana,  Rio  Arriba,  and 
Taos  counties  that  they  were  allowed  a  popular  referendum 
on  the  law.     Five '  thousand  and  sixteen  votes  were  cast 
against  the  school  system  and  only  thirty-seven  for  it.     The 
entire  act  was  repealed  the  following  December   (1856), 
and  the  Territory  continued  to  drift  in  the  dark. 

255.  Reasons  for  the   Opposition.  —  A  system  of  free 
public  schools  supported  by  public  taxation  and  not  con- 
nected with  the  Church  in  any  way  was  absolutely  unknown 
in  New  Mexico,  unheard  of  even  until  recent  years.     The 
whole   idea   was   a   new   one   imported   from   the   States. 
Whether  it  was  a  good  one  or  not,  the  average  New  Mexican 
was  not  sure.     Its  chief  spokesmen  were  Americans  and 
Protestants.     It  might  be  part  of  a  deep-laid  scheme  to 
educate   the   children   away   from   the    Catholic    Church. 
These    suspicions,  though  groundless,  were  very  real  and 
powerful    influences    operating    against    a    public    school 
system. 

Another  mighty  influence  was  the  native  disinclina- 
tion to  pay  taxes,  so  clearly  in  evidence  in  the  Revolt  of 
1837  (sec.  135)  and  again  in  the  nineties  (sec.  262).  Most  of 
the  wealth  of  the  Territory,  in  both  land  and  live  stock, 
was  in  the  possession  of  a  few  people,  who  had  no  desire 
to  be  taxed  for  the  education 'of  the  poor.  Besides,  the 
small  settlements  and  ranches  were  widely  separated,  and 
the  wild  tribes  roamed  almost  at  will  over  every  square 


218 


THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 


mile  of  the  Territory.  Geronimo  and  his  Apache  warriors 
were  finally  captured  (sec.  216)  less  than  five  years  before 
the  founding  of  the  public  school  system  in  1891. 

256.  The  First  Public  School  Law,  1860.  —  Thus  matter* 
drifted  until  1860,  when  the  legislature  passed  what  was 
really  the  first  public  school  law  of  the  Territory.  It 
provided  for  a  school  in  each  settlement,  to  be  supported 
by  a  tax  of  fifty  cents  a  month  for  each  child  who  attended, 


SPANISH-AMERICAN  NORMAL  SCHOOL 

—  and  attendance  was  compulsory.  These  were  public 
schools,  but  they  were  not  free  schools.  The  scheme, 
however,  met  the  objection  of  the  rich  to  paying  for  the 
education  of  the  poor,  and  remained  in  force,  with  some 
modifications,  for  the  next  thirty  years. 

In  1863  the  legislature  made  further  regulations  for 
the  "  education  of  all  the  children  within  the  limits  of  this 
Territory  .  .  .  so  far  as  the  school  funds  will  justify." 
But  where  were  those  funds  coming  from  ?  The  law  re- 


EDUCATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT  SINCE  1850         219 

f erred  to  them  as  being  "  derived  from  the  government 
of  the  United  States  and  from  Territorial  appropriations." 
Here  was  another  educational  hope  built  on  nothing.  The 
legislature  did  not  appropriate  a  dollar  ;  and  it  was  already 
a  well-known  fact  that  Congress  would  do  nothing.  Worse 
still  was  the  fact  that  the  large  grants  of  public  lands 
(sections  16  and  36  in  each  township)  which  the  govern- 
ment had  set  aside  for  school  purposes  were  then  wholly 
worthless  because  there  were  no  buyers.  Finally,  in 
February,  1872,  the  legislature  levied  the  first  poll  tax  of 
one  dollar  a  year  for  each  able-bodied  man  twenty-one 
years  old  and  assigned  it  to  "  school  purposes  exclusively." 
The  liquor  tax  and  fines  for  the  violation  of  Sunday  laws, 
added  in  1876,  completed  the  public  revenues  provided  for 
schools  until  after  1890. 

257.  A   Correction.  —  An   oft-repeated    slander   to    the 
effect  that  as  late    as    1889   the  only  qualification  for  a 
school  teacher  in  New  Mexico  was  that  he  should  be  able  to 
read  and  write  either  Spanish  or  English,  deserves  to  be 
set  at  rest  once  and  for  all.     Here  are  the  facts.     In  1889 
the   legislature  passed  an  act  requiring  that  justices  of 
the  peace,  constables,  and  other  local  officers,  including 
school  officers,  should  be  able  to  read  and  write  sufficiently 
well  to  keep  their  records  in  either  English  or  Spanish ; 
and  through  some  carelessness  "  school  teacher  "  appeared 
in  the  statute  along  with  other  school  officers.     To  make 
this  perfectly  clear,  after  the  mistake  had  been  discovered, 
the  legislature  of  1893  amended  the  act  by  striking  out 
the  words,  "  school  teacher." 

III.    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

258.  New  Elements  in  the  Situation.  —  These  chaotic 


22O 


THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 


conditions  obtained  down  to  1890.  That  New  Mexico 
had  no  school  system  was  the  one  hard  fact  that  the  public 
could  not  get  away  from.  The  children  of  the  Territory 
were  growing  up  in  ignorance  in  the  decade  from  1880  to 
1890,  when  wealth  was  increasing  as  never  before. 

The  coming  of  the  railroads  had  brought  men  of  every 
kind  and  from  everywhere.  Among  them  were  great 
numbers  of  that  restless,  active  type  of  people  who  con- 
stantly seek  the  newer  regions 
of  the  frontier.  Charmed  by 
the  new  wild  life  on  New 
Mexico's  plains  and  moun tains , 
or  engrossed  in  the  new  wealth 
they  were  winning  in  mining, 
stock  ranching,  merchandising, 
or  speculating,  they  forgot  the 
finer  thing  of  building  up  a  new 
civilization  for  themselves  and 
their  children.  Many  of  them, 
of  course,  had  no  families  and 
no  intention  of  staying  in  New 
Mexico  any  longer  than  was 
necessary  to  secure  an  easy  fortune  to  take  away  with 
them.  Like  some  of  the  wealthy  New  Mexicans  before 
them,  they  did  not  want  to  contribute  a  dollar  of  their 
money  to  anything. 

But  as  the  decade  (1880-1890)  advanced  a  new  type  of 
immigrants  came  in  increasing  numbers.  They  were  the 
settler  class  who  came  to  build  homes  and  grow  up  with  the 
new  country.  Accustomed  to  public  education  in  the 
older  States,  they  were  immediately  struck  by  the  absence 
of  educational  opportunities  for  their  children.  Soon 


HIRAM    HADLEY,   PIONEER 
EDUCATOR 


EDUCATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT   SINCE    1850 


221 


groups  of  earnest  men  here  and  there  were  seriously  dis- 
cussing the  problem  of  education.  Only  a  population  of 
educated  and  intelligent  men  and  women  would  ever 
develop  New  Mexico's  natural  resources  and  build  here  a 
great  State. 

259.  The  New  Mexico  Educational  Association.  —  The 
first  public  evidence  of  the  new  movement  came  in  Decem- 
ber, 1886,  when  the  New  Mexico  Educational  Associa- 


tion was  organized  at  Santa  Fe  for  the  purpose  of  keeping 
before  the  people  the  chaotic  and  deplorable  educational 
conditions  and  bringing  public  sentiment  to  bear  on  the 
problem  of  securing  material  aid  for  the  schools.  That 
body  has  grown  steadily,  exercised  an  influence,  and  en- 
rolled a  proportion  of  the  teachers  hardly  known  to  like 
organizations  anywhere  else  in  the  country. 

Another  group  of  such  men  meeting  in  the  real-estate 
office  of  Hiram  Hadley  at  Las  Cruces  in  1888  worked  out 
the  plans  for  starting  that  fall  the  Las  Cruces  College,  a 


222  THE  HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

private  school  which  later  developed  into  the  State  Agri- 
cultural College. 

260.  Passage   of   the   Common   School    Law,    1891.- 
Such  work  was  preparing  the  way  for  a  new  education  law. 
\Yhen  the  twenty-ninth  Legislative  Assembly  met  in  Decem- 
ber, 1890,  Governor  Prince  urged  upon  it  the  creation  of  a 
modern  and  up^to-date  school  system  as  its  most  important 
duty.    The  old  series  of  makeshift  acts  that  had  passed  as 
public  school  laws  had  long  been  known  as  utter  failures  and 
were  not  worth  patching  up.     Nothing  short  of  a  new  sys- 
tem would  meet  the  needs  of  the  Territory's  expanding  life. 
The  governor  had  chosen  his  time  wisely  and  well.     The 
agitation  of  recent  years  had  made  its  impression  on  the 
public.      The    ignorance,    hidebound    conservatism,    selfish 
interests,  and  selfish  individuals  that  had  had  their  way  in 
the  Territory  for  forty  years  were  now  marked  for  defeat. 
The  Education  Bill  became  law  February  12,  1891. 

261.  Organization  of  the  School  System. — The  new  law 
created  the  office  of   superintendent  of   public  instruction 
to  be  filled  by  the  governor's  appointment,  and  a  Territorial 
board  of  education  composed  of  the  governor,  superintend- 
ent of  public  instruction,  and  the  presidents  of  the  Uni- 
versity, the  Agricultural  College,  and  St.  Miafrael's  College. 
This  board  was  given  wide  powers   for  the  organization 
and  control  of  the  entire  school  system  and  the  adoption 
of  a  uniform  system  of  textbooks. 

The  first  step  toward  the  organization  of  the  new  system 
was  taken  when  Governor  Prince  appointed  Amado  Chaves, 
a  graduate  of  St.  Michael's  College,  as  first  Territorial 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  —  an  appointment 
which  at  once  disarmed .  any  possible  suspicion  that  the 
public  school  system  might  be  an  American  scheme  for 


EDUCATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT   SINCE    1850 


223 


training  children  away  from  the  Catholic  Church ;  for  Mr. 
Chaves  was  both  Spanish  in  blood  and  Catholic  in  religion. 
262.  Public  Education  at  Public  Expense.  —  Perhaps 
the  newest  feature  of  this  new  school  law  was  the  pro- 
vision for  supporting  the  schools  by  public  taxation.  The 
payment  of  the  poll  tax  was  now  made  a  qualification  for 


MAIN  BUILDING,  NEW  MEXICO  NORMAL  UNIVERSITY 

voting  —  a  provision  which  proved  so  unpopular  that  it 
was  repealed  at  the  next  session  of  the  legislature  (1893). 
These  new  schools  were  to  be  not  only  public,  but  free 
and  supported  at  public  expense.  The  old  monthly  tuition 
fee  was  gone.  New  Mexico  was  emerging  from  forty  years 
of  wandering  in  the  wilderness  of  ignorance  and  ready  to 
begin  to  apply  the  sound  maxim  that  in  a  democracy  every 
dollar  of  wealth  is  under  a  first  mortgage  for  the  education 


224  THE  HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

of  all  the  children  of  all  the  people.     That  is  their  birth- 
right. 

263.  An  Era  of  Rapid  Progress.  —  The  superintendent's 
report  for  the  first  year  under  the  system   (1891-1892) 
showed  over  five  hundred  public  schools  with  23,000  pupils 
enrolled.     Adding  to  this  the  sixty  private    schools  with 
4,600  students  and  the  enrollment  in  the  Territorial  insti- 
tutions brings  the  total  for  the  year  up  to  more  than  27,000. 

Until  the  end  of  the  century  progress  was  slow,  the  en- 
rollment in  the  public  schools  not  reaching  the  30,000 
mark  until  1900.  Then  the  move  upward  became  more 
rapid.  The  tidal  wave  of  immigration,  the  forerunner  of 
the  first  dry-farming  boom,  soon  began  to  move  into  the 
eastern  counties,  new  school  districts  were  created,  and 
new  schools  sprang  up.  In  this  period  of  rapid  change 
Governor  Otero  rendered  the  Territory  his  greatest  educa- 
tional service  by  the  appointment  of  Hiram  Hadley,  former 
president  of  the  Agricultural  College,  as  Territorial  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction  (March,  1905).  Mr.  Hadley 
was  an  educator  of  large  ability  and  great  personal  mag- 
netism, with  unbounded  energy  and  enthusiasm  for  the 
work.  He  brought  to  his  new  task  the  ripe  experience  of 
fifty  years  in  educational  work,  fifteen  years  of  it  in  New 
Mexico.  Such  fine  leadership  furnished  the  motive  force 
necessary  to  start  the  great  era  of  educational  progress  that 
has  marked  recent  years. 

264.  Lengthening  the  School  Term.  —  During  the  early 
years  of  this  great  forward  movement  the  average  school 
term  was  very  short.     In  some  of  the  towns  and  cities  it 
stood  at  full  nine  months,  but  in  the  poorer  and  more 
sparsely  settled  rural  districts  it  was  seldom  more  than 
two  months.     To   improve   the   situation   somewhat   the 


EDUCATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT   SINCE    1850  225 

legislature  of  1903  required  a  minimum  term  of  three  months 
in  every  district  and  provided  special  funds  to  aid  weak 
districts.  Then  the  State  constitution,  effective  January  6, 
1912,  raised  the  minimum  requirement  to  five  months. 
And  the  State  legislature  of  1915  took  another  forward 
step  by  advancing  the  minimum  term  to  seven  months. 

265.  County  High   Schools.  --  The   cities   already   had 
good  high  schools,  but  the  rural  districts  had  none.     The 
first  State  legislature  (1912)  passed  a  general  county  high- 
school  law  under  which,  as  amended  in  1913,  any  county 
might  by  special  election  establish  one  or  more  county 
high  schools  supported  by  a  general  county  tax  and  free 
to  all  children  of  high-school  grade  in  the  county.     During 
the  spring  and  summer  of  1913  such  high  schools  were 
voted  in  Bernalillo,  Colfax,  Eddy,  Luna,  and  Otero  counties, 
and  were  opened  in  September  of  that  year.     At  the  time 
of  this  writing  (1921)  there  are  sixteen  county  high  schools 
in  thirteen  counties  of  ^the  State,  and  others  are  sure  to 
follow  until  there  is  at  least  one  in  every  county. 

266.  Industrial  Education.  ---  The  same  session  of   the 
legislature  (1912)  that  provided  for  the  establishment  of 
county  high  schools  also  made  provision  for  the  intro- 
duction of  industrial  subjects  into  the  course  of  study  in  the 
public  schools.     The  scope  of  this  work  was  greatly  ex- 
tended in  1917,  when  the  State  entered  into  a  cooperative 
arrangement  with  the  United  States  government  for  carry- 
ing on  vocational  training  under  the  general  provisions  of  the 
Smith-Hughes  Act.     Extensive  work  in  agriculture,  home 
economics,  and  trades  and  industries,  and  in  the  training 
of  teachers  of  these  subjects  is  under  way  in  the  high  schools 
and  educational  institutions  of  the  State. 

267.  The  Elimination  of  Illiteracy.  —  The  effect  of  the 


226  THE   HISTORY   OF   NEW   MEXICO 

school  system  was  plainly  apparent  in  the  decade  from  1900 
to  1910,  when  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  in  the  State 
decreased  from  32.2  per  cent  to  20.2  per  cent,  or  more  than 
a  third  in  ten  years.  Still  the  percentage  was  high,  only 
Arizona  (20.9  per  cent)  among  all  the  western  States  having 
a  larger  proportion.  Soon  the  educational  forces  of  the 
State  began  to  give  serious  attention  to  these  conditions, 
and  the  State  Educational  Association  made  the  problem 
of  illiteracy  the  central  theme  of  its  meeting  at  Albuquerque 
in  1915.  Public  attention  was  focused  on  it ;  night  schools 
for  adults  sprang  up  in  various  parts  of  the  State  only  to  be 
snuffed  out  and  forgotten  in  America's  entrance  into  the 
Great  War. 

That  loss,  however,  has  been  more  than  compensated  for 
since  the  war  by  the  Federal  government's  provision  for  the 
training  and  rehabilitation  of  disabled  soldiers,  sailors, 
and  marines,  and  of  persons  disabled  iri  industry. 

268.  Achievements  and  Shortcomings.  —  It  is  doubtful 
whether  there  is  any  other  country  in  the  world  where  so 
much  educational  progress  has  been  made  in  the  same 
length  of  time  as  has  been  made  in  New  Mexico  since  1891, 
and  especially  since  1900.  The  record  is  one  to  be  proud  of. 
But  the  State  cannot  afford  to  forget  that  progress  and 
achievement  are  relative,  and  that  her  neighbor  States  are 
likely  to  outdistance  her.  New  Mexico  spends  a  smaller 
amount  per  capita  on  public  education  than  any  other 
western  State,  and  she  assesses  her  taxable  wealth  at  a 
lower  rate  for  education  than  any  other  western  State. 
Her  teachers  are  correspondingly  underpaid.  One  of  two 
things  must  happen :  the  State  must  make  more  adequate 
provision  for  school  equipment  and  teachers'  salaries,  or 
the  training  of  her  children  must  suffer. 


.      EDUCATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT   SINCE    1850  227 

IV.     HIGHER   EDUCATION 

269.  Founding  the  State  Institutions.  —  In  New  Mexico, 
as  elsewhere,  the  higher  institutions  of  learning  are  older 
than  the  common  school  system.  February  28,  1889, 
Governor  Edmund  G.  Ross  signed  the  bill  creating  the 
University,  at  Albuquerque;  the  Agricultural  College,  at 
Las  Cruces;  and  the  School  of  Mines,  at  Socorro,  with  a 
"  territorial  institution  fund  "  for  their  support  and  general 
improvement.1 


A    CAMPUS  VIEW,  NEW  MEXICO  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE  AND 
MECHANIC  ARTS 

270.  The  Agricultural  College.  —  The  Agricultural  Col- 
lege was  located  at  Las  Cruces,  where  the  older  students  of 
Professor  Hadley's  Las  Cruces  College  (sec.  259)  formed  the 

1  An  interesting  story  is  told  of  the  hot  competition  for  the  Agricultural  College,  which , 
because  of  its  partial  support  and  direct  connection  with  the  United  States  government,  was 
the  most  important  of  the  group.  Enterprising  citizens  of  Las  Cruces  and  the  Mesilla  Valley, 
to  show  the  superiority  of  their  section  as  the  location  for  an  agricultural  college,  got  to- 
gether a  fine  lot  of  fresh  lettuce,  spinach,  radishes,  young  onions,  and  other  vegetables  from 
their  winter  gardens,  shipped  them  to  Santa  F6,  and  gave  a  big  dinner  to  members  of  the 
legislature  at  the  old  Palace  Hotel,  in  Feb^tary.  1880,  placing  on  each  plate  a  card  with  the 
^nd,  "Grown  in  the  Mesilla  Valley."  Th»  Albuquerque  boosters,  not  to  be  outdone, 
announced  that  they  would  give  a  sirnfla'-  dinner  from  their  gardens.  Then  the  sly  Las 
Cruces  groun  sliooed  awav  to  a  nn'ntine  office  and  secured  some  nice  cards  bearing  the  in- 
scription :  "Thes«!  vegetables  would  have  be^n  fresher  if  the  exnress  from  California  had  not 
been  delayed  by  hf>aw  snows  around  Flas^taff."  which  thev  prooosed  to  place  on  every  plate 
or  Albuquerque  products.  But  they  had  all  their  trouble  for  nothing :  the  Albuquerque 
dinner  was  never  given. 


228  THE   HISTORY   OF   NEW    MEXICO 

nucleus  of  the  new  institution  when  it  was  opened  in  January, 
1890,  with  thirty-five  students  and  a  faculty  of  eight,  with 
Professor  Hadley  as  its  first  president.  This  institution 
is  one  of  the  Federal  land-grant  colleges  provided  for  in 
the  Morrill  Act  of  Congress,  July  2,  1862,  and  is  the  oldest 
of  the  State  educational  institutions.  It  has  developed  a 
strong  and  varied  curriculum,  a  large  student  body,  and  an 
Extension  Service  that  covers  the  entire  State,  while  the 
work  of  the  Experiment  Station  is  of  great  value  to  the 
farming  and  stock-raising  industries. 

From  small  beginnings  and  a  very  elementary  curriculum, 
the  College  grew  steadily  in  size  and  constantly  raised  its 
academic  standards  until  1909,  when  the  course  of  study 
was  placed  on  a  strictly  college  basis,  requiring  four  years  of 
high-school  work  for  entrance  to  the  freshmen  class.  When 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  made  its  official 
classification  of  American  colleges  and  universities  in  1912, 
the  New  Mexico  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts 
was  one  of  the  six  agricultural  colleges  receiving  the  highest 
rank. 

271.  The  University.  —  The  State  University,  created  by 
the  law  of  1889,  was  to  be  an  integral  part  of  the  public 
educational  system,  whenever  there  should  be  such  a 
system. 

The  new  institution  began  work  with  a  summer  term  in 
1892,  held  in  the  building  of  the  Albuquerque  Academy 
(now  the  Albuquerque  Public  Library)  and  attended  by 
seventy-five  students,  chiefly  prospective  teachers.  That 
fall  the  University  opened  the  doors  of  its  new  building 
"  on  the  hill  "  for  the  beginning  of  its  first  regular  term. 
It  had  a  faculty  of  four  and  enrolled  eighty  students  during 
the  year.  The  curriculum  was  very  elementary  and  would 


EDUCATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT   SINCE    1850 


229 


look  poor  by  the  side  of  the  course  of  study  of  a  modern 
high  school.  Like  the  Agricultural  College,  however, 
it  has  steadily  raised  its  standards,  until  to-day  it  has  a 
strong  faculty  and  a  large  student  body  from  New  Mexico 
and  elsewhere. 


272.  The  School  of  Mines.  —  Along  with  the  Agri- 
cultural College  and  the  University  was  created  the  School 
of  Mines  to  be  located  at  Socorro.  Its  first  building  was 
completed  in  1892,  though  the  necessary  equipment  and 
funds  for  actually  opening  the  school  were  not  available 
until  September,  1895.  It  had  twenty- three  students  and 
a  faculty  of  five  the  first  year. 

Like  the  Agricultural  College  and  the  University,  the 
School  of  Mines  was  starting  on  a  long  period  of  slow 


230 


THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW    MEXICO 


growth.  Its  location  in  a  rich  mining  region  has  furnished 
the  necessary  contact  with  the  mining  industry  for  the 
development  of  the  proper  attitude  toward  mining  problems 
and  for  securing  experience  in  the  practice  of  mining 
engineering. 

273.   The    Military    Institute.  —  In    the    fall    of    1891 
Colonel  Robert  S.  Goss  opened  a  private  school  known  as 


ADMINISTRATION  BUILDING,  NEW  MEXICO  SCHOOL  OF  MINES 

the  Goss  Military  Institute  in  the  town  of  Roswell.  In 
February,  1893,  the  legislature  adopted  Colonel  Goss's 
school  as  the  New  Mexico  Military  Institute.  Otherwise 
there  was  no  connection  between  the  two  schools;  for 
when  the  Goss  Military  Institute  closed  and  its  faculty 
scattered  in  1896,  there  were  still  no  funds  available  for  the 
new  Territorial  institution.  In  September,  1898,  it  opened 
its  doors.  The  enrollment  of  a  hundred  that  year  was 
miscellaneous  in  character,  including  several  girls.  During 


EDUCATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT  SINCE  1850 


231 


that  first  year,  however,  the  Institute  found  itself ;  and  at 
the  opening  of  the  second  year  it  went  on  to  a  strict  military 
school  basis,  requiring  all  students  to  live  in  the  institu- 


tion and  remain  at  all  times  under  school  regulations 
and  military  discipline  —  the  first  experiment  of  the  kind 
west  of  the  Mississippi  River.  It  succeeded  from  the 
beginning. 


232  THE   HISTORY  OE   NEW  MEXICO 

The  Institute  was  first  recognized  by  the  United  States 
government  in  1909,  when  it  was  one  of  only  six  military 
schools  in  the  country  placed  in  the  distinguished  list  of 
the  War  Department.  It  is  now  rated  as  one  of  the  honor 
military  schools  of  the  United  States. 

274.  The   Normal   Schools.  —  The   same  month   (Feb- 
ruary, 1893)  in  which  the  Military  Institute  was  created 
the  legislature  passed   another  act  creating   two   normal 
schools  to  be  located  at  Silver  City  and  Las  Vegas.     The 
Silver  City  institution  opened  its  first  session  in  the  Presbyte- 
rian church  in  September,  1894,  but  had  no  building  of  its 
own  until  1896.     The  Las  Vegas  normal  was  not  opened 
until  October,  1898 ;   and  before  the  close  of  its  first  year 
its  ambitious  president,  Dr.  Edgar  L.  Hewett,  conceived 
the  idea  of  making  it  a  teachers'  college  and  secured  from 
the  legislature  (February,  1899)  a  special  act  changing  its 
name  to  the  New  Mexico  Normal  University. 

The  last  session  of  the  Territorial  legislature  (March, 
1909)  created  the  Spanish- American  Normal  School  at 
El  Rito  to  serve  as  a  center  for  the  training  of  teachers 
for  the  rural  schools  in  the  Spanish-speaking  sections  of 
the  northern  and  western  parts  of  the  State.  Its  first 
session  opened  the  following  September  (1909). 

275.  School    of     American    Research.  —  The    Archae- 
ological Institute  of  America  has  been  carrying  on  work  in 
the  Southwest  for  more  than  a  generation.     In  1909  the 
legislature  created  the  Museum  of  New  Mexico  under  the 
joint  control  of  the  State  and  the  Archaeological  Institute. 
In  it  is  deposited  the  Institute's  great  southwestern  collec- 
tion.    This  collection  and  that  of  the  Historical  Society 
of  New  Mexico  are  housed  in  the  historic  old  Palace  of  the 
Governors,  the  oldest  government  building  in  the  United 


EDUCATIONAL   DEVEOPMENT   SINCE  1850  233 

States.  In  this  Museum  the  Archaeological  Institute 
soon  started  the  School  of  American  Archaeology,  now  the 
School  of  American  Research.  It  is  not  a  school  in  the  ordi- 
nary sense,  devoting  its  energies  to  teaching;  but  is  an 
institution  primarily  engaged  in  archaeological  investi- 
gation and  in  research  in  the  early  history  of  the  peoples 
who  have  occupied  this  region.  Around  the  Museum  and 
the  School  has  grown  up  a  notable  colony  of  scholars  and 
artists  from  various  parts  of  the  country. 

GENERAL  READINGS 

H.  H.  BANCROFT,  History  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  774-776. 
L.  B.  PRINCE,  A  Concise  History  of  New  Mexico,  252-258. 
B.  M.  READ,  Illustrated  History  of  New  Mexico,  533-561. 
R.  E.  TWITCHELL,  The  Leading  Facts  of  New  Mexican  History,  II,  328- 
356,  506-509;  V,  124-130,  164-201. 
J.  H.  VAUGHAN,  History  of  Education  in  New  Mexico,  Chapters  V-LX. 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

The  class  should  work  up,  on  the  cooperative  plan,  the  early  history  of 
schools  in  its  town  or  county. 

QUESTIONS  AND   S    GGESTIONS 

1.  Why  were  educational  conditions  in   1850  particularly  backward? 
Were  private  schools  more  important  from  1850  to  1890  than  they  are 
to-day?  Why? 

2.  Give  an  account  of  the  educational  work  of  Bishop  Lamy;  of  the 
Protestant  denominations. 

3.  What  steps  toward  a  public  school  system  were  taken  in  1856?     Why 
did  they  fail?     Should     ongress  have  helped?     Why? 

4.  How  were  the  public  schools  established  in  1860  supported?     What 
were  the  first  public  re  enues  provided  for  them?     When? 

5.  What  change  of  sentiment  regarding  public  education  took  place  be- 
tween 1880  and  1890?     Of  what  importance  was  the  New  Mexico  Educa- 
tional Association? 

6.  When  was  the  public  school  system  established?     How  old  is  it? 
When  did  the  present  era  of  rapid  educational  progress  begin  ?     \Vhat  were 
some  of  the  influences  that  brou  lit  it  about? 


234  THE   HISTORY    OF    MA\    MEXICO 

7.  What  provisions  have  been  made  for  lengthening  the  school  term  ? 
How  rapidly  is  illiteracy  being  eliminated? 

8.  When  were  county  high  schools  first  established?     What  progress 
has  been  made  in  vocational  education  ? 

9.  How  does  New  Mexico  compare  with  other  western  States  in  the 
amount  spent  for  public  educati  n?    Why  is  that  fact  important? 

10.  Sketch  briefly  the  origin  and  development  of  the  Agricultural  College, 
the  University,  the  School  of  Mi  es,  the  Military  Institute,  the  Normal 
Schools,  and  the  School  of  American  Research. 


CHAPTER   XV 

THE   BEGINNINGS    OF    STATEHOOD 
I.     THE   STATEHOOD   MOVEMENT 

276.  Early    Efforts.  —  The    collapse    of    the    "  State  " 
government  of  1850  (sec.  182)  put  an  end  to  the  movement 
for  many  years.     In  1866,  however,  a  convention  framed 
another  constitution  and  submitted  it  to  popular  vote. 
Still  others  followed  in   1870-1872,   while  in   Congress  a 
very  different  movement  was  on  foot.     The  name  "  New 
Mexico,"  older  than  Plymouth,  or  even  Jamestown,  was 
not  popular  with  Easterners.     Some  of  them,  really  opposed 
to  every  extension  of  western  influence,  now  proposed  to 
organize  the  Territory  as  the  "  State  of  Lincoln."     Even  in 
that  form  the  bill  did  not  pass. 

277.  A  Thoughtless  Act  Defeats  Statehood.  —  In  1874- 
1875  Stephen  B.  Elkins,  then  Delegate  in  Congress  from 
New  Mexico,  joined  the  Delegate  from  Colorado  in  a  fight 
to  have  the  two  Territories  admitted  into  the  Union.     The 
East  was  hostile ;    but  both  men  were  Republicans  and 
succeeded    in    making    statehood    something   of    a    party 
measure    in    order    to    secure    eastern   votes.     They    also 
counted  on  securing  some  Democratic  votes  from  the  South, 
because  the  South  was  more  favorable  to  western  develop- 
ment and  because  both  Territories  were  either  doubtful 
or  Democratic. 

In   the  spring  of   1875   success  seemed  in  sight,  when 
New  Mexico's  prospects    were    ruined   by   a    thoughtless 

235 


236  THE   HISTORY   OF   NEW   MEXICO 

act.  One  of  the  old  "  force  bills  "  of  the  Reconstruction 
period  was  being  discussed  in  the  House.  A  new  and 
unknown  Republican  congressman  by  the  name  of  Burrus, 
from  Michigan,  seized  the  opportunity  to  win  notoriety  by 
making  a  "  bloody-shirt  "  speech,  in  which,  as  an  eye- 
witness puts  it,  "  he  grilled  the  Southerners  from  head 
to  foot  "  with  bitter  denunciation.  During  the  last  five 
minutes  of  the  speech  Mr.  Elkins  stood  near  by  "as  if 
spellbound,  listening  to  him,"  and  when  Burrus  closed 
"  with  a  flood  of  invective,"  Elkins  was  the  first  man  to 
rush  up  and  congratulate  him.  The  Southerners,  in  a  life- 
and-death  struggle  to  preserve  their  States  from  Negro 
rule,  never  forgave  Elkins  nor  forgot  that  he  was  the  Dele- 
gate from  New  Mexico ;  and  on  the  final  roll  call  they  voted 
for  Colorado  and  against  New  Mexico.  Colorado  became 
a  State  ;  New  Mexico  remained  a  Territory.  The  "  Elkins 
handshake  "  had  defeated  statehood. 

278.  Influence  of  the  Railroads.  —  The  period  of 
rapid  development  in  mining,  stock  raising,  and  town 
building  that  followed  the  coming  of  the  first  railroad  in 
1879  and  the  expansion  of  railroad  facilities  in  the  next 
few  years  brought  a  lull  in  statehood  agitation.  The 
people  were  too  much  absorbed  in  the  rapid  growth  of 
their  material  wealth  to  give  much  time  to  National  politics. 
Toward  the  end  of  the  eighties  (in  1887-1890),  however, 
another  movement  was  started  in  Washington  to  admit 
New  Mexico,  this  time  with  the  absurd  name  of  the  "  State 
of  Montezuma."  But  the  name  did  no  harm;  for  all 
these  bills  died  without  passing  Congress. 

While  North  and  South  Dakota,  Montana,  Washington, 
Idaho,  and  Wyoming  were  becoming  States,  the  Republi- 
can Congress  saw  no  good  reason  why  Democratic  New 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  STATEHOOD  237 

Mexico  should  be  made  a  State.  In  this  situation  the 
Territorial  legislature  provided  for  another  constitutional 
convention  to  meet  at  Santa  Fe,  in  September,  1889,  and 
frame  a  constitution. 

But  in  arranging  for  the  convention  there  had  been 
such  inequalities  in  the  distribution  of  seats  that  the 
Democrats  stayed  away  from  the  elections  and  there 
was  only  one  Democrat  in  the  convention.  As  a  result, 
when  the  constitution  was  submitted  to  popular  vote  in 
October,  1890,  it  was  rejected  by  a  decisive  majority.  Thus 
matters  drifted  until  after  the  Spanish-American  War. 

II.    THE   SrANISH-AMERICAN  WAR 

279.  The  Call  for  Volunteers.  —  When  the  storm  broke 
over  Cuba  in  1898,  President  McKinley  called  on  New 
Mexico  for  her  quota  of  three  hundred  and  forty  volunteer 
cavalrymen  as  part  of  a  regiment  of  western  cowboys  for 
service  in  Cuba  under  Captain  Leonard  Wood  and  Lieuten- 
ant   Colonel    Theodore    Roosevelt.     In    eight    days    the 
entire  quota  was  mustered  into  service  at  Santa  Fe  and 
ready  to  proceed  to  San  Antonio,  Texas,  for  regimental 
organization. 

280.  The    Rough-Rider   Regiment.  —  This   fine   south- 
western regiment  composed  of  men  from  New  Mexico, 
Arizona,    Oklahoma,    and   Indian   Territory,   with   a   few 
scattering    individuals    from    almost    everywhere,    was    a 
gathering  of  rugged  men  ready  to  be  trained  into  dogged 
fighters  who  would  give  a  good  account  of  themselves. 
But  it  was   no    cowboy  regiment.     "  Roosevelt's    Rough 
Riders,"   says   Colonel   Twitchell,    "  were   clerks,   stenog- 
raphers, college  men,  coal  diggers,  bartenders,  printers,  rail- 
road men,  mechanics,  hack  drivers,  miners,  prospectors, 


238 


THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 


and  a  respectable  contingent  of  '  punchers  '  of  the  true 
southwestern  plains  variety."  They  soon  became  both 
rough  riders  and  good  soldiers. 

281.  Fighting   in    Cuba.  —  Leaving  San  Antonio,  May 
29,  this  Rough-Rider  regiment  proceeded  by  way  of  Tampa, 
Florida,  to  Cuba,  landing  near  Santiago,  on  June  22- 

just  in  time  to  be  in 
action  at  Las  Guasimas 
(gwa-se'mas),  the  first 
engagement  in  Cuba, 
two  days  later.  At  El 
Caney  (ka'nl)  and  San 
Juan,  July  1-3,  they  won 
brilliant  victories.  But 
their  fighting  was  soon 
over ;  for  when  Santiago 
surrendered,  July  17, 
the  war  in  Cuba  ended, 
and  Porto  Rico  surren- 
dered without  a  battle. 
On  August  7  they  left 
GENERAL  NELSON  A.  MILES  Cuba;  September  15 

they  were  discharged  from  service. 

The  second  call  for  volunteers  came  so  late  and  the 
war  ended  so  suddenly  that  the  "  Big-Four  "  regiment  from 
New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Oklahoma,  and  Indian  Territory 
had  not  yet  left  Camp  Churchman,  Georgia,  when  Santiago 
surrendered  and  the  Spanish  opposition  collapsed.  They 
returned  home  without  seeing  any  active  service. 

III.    THE  WINNING  OF  STATEHOOD 

282.  The  Moral  Victory.  —  New  Mexico  had  been  called 


THE   BEGINNINGS   OF  STATEHOOD  239 

on  in  a  National  crisis  and  had  made  good.  The  Rough- 
Rider  Regiment  had  done  such  credit  to  itself  and  its 
section  that  even  the  solidly  Republican  Congress  would 
find  it  more  difficult  now  to  ignore  the  demands  of  these 
four  southwestern  Territories  —  New  Mexico,  Arizona, 
Oklahoma,  and  Indian  Territory  —  for  self-government. 

The  case  of  New  Mexico  was  somewhat  changed,  too,  by 
the  fact  that  her  Delegates  in  Congress  in  recent  years 
were  generally  Republican.  In  fact,  there  were  indica- 
tions that  the  political  complexion  of  the  Territory  had 
changed.  Prior  to  1896  New  Mexico  had  generally  been 
Democratic.  In  the  elections  of  that  year,  though  the 
Democrats  retained  control  of  the  Legislative  Council, 
the  Republicans  carried  the  House  of  Representatives ; 
and  after  that  year  both  houses  became  safely  Republican. 

283.  Union  with  Arizona  Proposed,  1906.  —  Even  then  a 
certain  unworthy  jealousy  of  southwestern  influence  showed 
its  control  over  Congress  by  the  proposal  to  organize  the 
four  Territories   into   only  two   States,  —  Oklahoma   and 
Indian  Territory  to  become  the  State  of  Oklahoma,  and 
New  Mexico  and  Arizona  to  become  the  State  of  Arizona. 

The  New  England  and  eastern  influences  opposed  to 
the  admission  of  any  new  western  States,  knowing  that 
New  Mexico  and  Arizona  would  not  unite,  saw  in  this 
joint-statehood  proposition  a  cheap  method  of  "saving 
the  face  "  of  their  party,  which  had  pledged  itself  to  "  State- 
hood for  the  Territories." 

284.  Joint    Statehood    Defeated.  —  The    outcome    was 
never  in  doubt.     Arizona  was  strongly  Democratic  ;   New 
Mexico,  doubtful  or  probably  Republican.     Arizona  had 
fewer  than  150,000  people ;  New  Mexico,  probably  250,000. 
If  they  were  yoked  together,  New  Mexico  would  be  the 


240 


THE  HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 


dominant  partner  in  the  new  concern.  The  name ' '  Arizona  " 
was  not  sufficient  compensation  for  this  loss  of  power. 
Arizona,  therefore,  defeated  it  overwhelmingly,  while  New 
Mexico,  better  satisfied  with  the  situation  because  her 
larger  population  assured  her  a  controlling  influence  in  the 
new  State  for  years  to  come,  accepted  it.  Accepted  by  one 


Courtesy  of  Shipley  Bros.  Cattle  Co. 

HEREFORDS   ON   THE  RANGE  TO-DAY 

Territory  and  rejected  by  the  other,  the  proposition  was 
dead  —  as  Congress  expected. 

285.  The  Enabling  Act  of  1910.  —  But  it  wouldn't  stay 
dead.  The  joint-statehood  movement  in  the  Indian 
Territory  and  Oklahoma  had  carried;  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona  alone  were  left  out  of  the  Union.  And  the  very 
fact  of  being  the  only  Territories  left  gave  them  a  new 


THE   BEGINNINGS  OF  STATEHOOD  241 

advantage  by  attracting  the  attention  of  the  whole  country 
to  this  glaring  injustice  due  to  partisan  and  sectional 
motives  unworthy  of  a  great  nation.  Public  opinion  was 
not  long  in  getting  results.  The  Enabling  Act  passed 
Congress  and  was  signed  by  President  Taft,  June  20,  1910. 

I   .     THE  FORMATION  OF  THE   STATE   GOVERNMENT 

286.  The  Constitutional  Convention,  1910.  — Under  the 

provisions  of  this  law  the  governor  of  the  Territory  called 
an  election  to  be  held  on  September  6  to  choose  members  of 
a  constitutional  convention  to  meet  in  Santa  Fe,  October  3. 
The  roll  call  showed  that  it  was  composed  of  seventy-one 
Republicans  and  twenty-nine  Democrats. 

During  the  campaign  there  had  been  widespread  dis- 
cussion of  the  initiative,  referendum,  recall,  direct  primary, 
and  many  other  progressive  ideas ;  and  many  members 
of  the  convention  had  pledged  themselves  to  work  for  the 
embodiment  of  these  ideas  in  the  new  constitution.  The 
convention,  however,  though  it  contained  a  large  array  of 
the  ablest  men  in  the  State,  did  not  prove  to  be  a  progres- 
sive body.  The  result  of  its  work,  which  closed  November 
21,  was  a  "  model  of  conservatism."  The  writing  in  of  the 
progressive  features  of  modern  constitutions  was  left  to 
the  future. 

287.  Ratification   of   the    Constitution.  —  In    the   cam- 
paign that  followed,  many  leading  Democrats  put  forth 
a  determined  effort  to  have  the  constitution  rejected  so  that 
the  convention  would  have  to  reassemble  and  frame  a  new 
one  nearer  in  accord  with  what  they  believed  to  be  public 
opinion.     On  this  issue,  however,  those  who  favored  rati- 
fication had  a  very  decided  advantage.     In  the  first  place, 
the  constitution  was  a  Republican  product,  and  the  appeal 


242  THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

to  party  loyalty  would  carry  a  large  vote.  Secondly,  many 
people,  knowing  that  the  East  was  really  opposed  to  state- 
hood in  any  form,  and  fearing  that  a  rejection  might  lead 
to  complications  that  would  defeat  statehood  itself,  voted 
for  it  on  that  ground.  These  considerations,  rather  than 
the  merits  of  the  constitution,  explain  its  ratification  by 
the  large  vote  of  31,742  to  13,399.  But  in  spite  of  these 
advantages,  it  was  defeated  in  counties  as  widely  scattered 
as  Lincoln,  Roosevelt,  San  Juan,  and  Sierra.  It  was 
approved  by  Congress  and  the  President  August  21,  1911 ; 
and  the  people  turned  to  the  exciting  events  of  the  political 
campaign  preceding  the  first  State  election  November 
7,1911. 

288.  The  Blue-ballot  Amendment.  —  One  of   the  most 
convincing  arguments  advanced  against  the  new  constitu- 
tion was  that  the  process  of  amendment  had  been  made  so 
complex  and  difficult  that  it  was  practically  unamendable. 
The  delay  of  Congress  in  approving  the  constitution  gave 
time  for  the  same  argument  to  be  used  with  telling  effect 
in  Washington.     Hence  Congress  required  the  people  to 
vote  on  a  new  amending  clause  to  take  the  place  of  Article 
XIX  of  the  original  constitution,  making  the  process  of 
amendment  simpler  and  easier.     This  new  article,  printed 
and  submitted  on  blue  paper,  and  hence  known    as    the 
"  blue-ballot  amendment,"  was  a  decided  improvement. 

289.  The  First  State  Election.  —  The  campaign  in  the 
fall  of  1911  aroused  the  keenest  interest  throughout  the 
Territory.     A   full   ticket  of   State,   county,   and   district 
officers  was  to  be  elected ;   two  representatives  in  Congress 
were  to  be  chosen ;    and  the  legislature  elected  at  that 
time  would  choose  two  members  of  the  United  States 
Senate. 


THE   BEGINNINGS  OF   STATEHOOD 


243 


The  Democrats,  long  out  of  power  and  poorly  organized, 
had  the  advantage  of  not  being  responsible  for  any  of  the 
unpopular  measures  of  recent  years.  The  Republicans, 
steadily  in  power  for  fifteen  years  and  well  organized  for 
the  contest,  lost  their  tactical  advantage  by  having  a 
record  to  explain  and  defend.  This  put  the  Republicans 
on  the  defensive  in  the  campaign  and  at  the  same  time 
furnished  the  Democrats  their  easiest  point  of  attack. 
The  latter,  evidently  appreciat- 
ing their  advantage,  nominated 
William  C.  McDonald,  of 
Carrizozo,  a  substantial  business 
man,  especially  well  known 
among  the  cattle  and  sheep 
men. 

The  Republicans  fought-with 
the  confidence  that  came  from 
fifteen  years  of  steady  victories. 
The  Democrats,  strengthened 
by  the  assistance  of  several 
former  Republicans  now  turned 
"  Progressives,"  received  the 
support  of  the  Albuquerque  Morning  Journal,  the  largest 
newspaper  in  the  State.  On  election  day,  November  7, 
McDonald  was  elected,  and  the  "  blue- ballot  amendment  " 
was  ratified,  the  latter  by  a  vote  of  34,897  to  22,831. 

290.  Admission  of  the  State,  January  6,  1912.  —  Step 
by  step  the  process  of  transforming  the  Territory  into  a 
commonwealth  had  been  completed.  Promptly  on  January 
6,  1912,  as  soon  as  the  official  count  of  the  votes  reached 
Washington,  President  Taft  proclaimed  New  Mexico  the 
forty-seventh  State  of  the  Union. 


GOVERNOR 

WILLIAM  C.  MCDONALD 
1912-1916 


244  THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

The  new  State,  county,  and  district  officers  immediately 
took  the  oath  of  office  and  entered  upon  their  official 
duties.  When  the  elaborate  inauguration  ceremonies  took 
place  at  San taFe,  January  15, 191 2,  and  William  J.  Mills,  the 
last  Territorial  governor,  introduced  his  successor,  William 
C.  McDonald,  first  governor  of  the  State,  the  Territory 
of  New  Mexico  passed  into  history. 

V.     POLITICAL  AND   SOCIAL  DEVELOPMENT 

291.  Political  Parties  and  Their  Strength.  —  Although 
the  Territory  had  been  under  Republican  control  since 
1896  (sec.  282),  the  strong  Democratic  vote  for  Delegate  to 
Congress  in  the  last  years  of  the  Territory  raised  some 
doubt  about  the  permanence  of  that  control.  The  con- 
stitutional convention  of  1910,  however,  with  seventy- 
one  Republican  delegates  and  only  twenty-nine  Democrats, 
seemed  to  remove  any  doubt  on  that  point.  Yet  careful 
students  of  political  affairs  refused  to  be  convinced.  They 
pointed  out  the  fact  that  this  overwhelming  majority 
was  due  to  inequalities  in  the  apportionment  of  delegates. 
But  positive  proof  was  lacking. 

The  first  State  election  furnished  the  necessary  evidence 
for  drawing  surer  conclusions.  The  constitutional  con- 
vention had  so  districted  the  State  for  both  houses  of 
the  legislature  and  for  district  judges  and  attorneys  that 
these  still  showed  Republican  majorities.  But  the  vote  for 
congressmen,  governor,  and  other  State  officers,  in  which 
the  whole  State  was  counted  as  a  unit  —  the  real  index  of 
party  strength  —  told  a  different  story.  For  Congress 
George  Curry,  Republican,  and  Harvey  B.  Fergusson, 
Democrat,  were  elected.  For  the  governorship  McDonald, 
Democrat,  had  beaten  his  opponent  by  three  thousand 


THE   BEGINNINGS  OF  STATEHOOD  245 

majority  (31,016  to  28,019),  and  the  Democrats  had  also 
elected  their  candidates  for  lieutenant  governor,  secre- 
tary, treasurer,  and  superintendent  of  public  instruction 

—  five  in  all.     The  Republicans,  on  the  other  hand,  had 
elected  their  candidates  for  attorney  general,  auditor,  and 
commissioner  of  public  lands,   while   the  State  Supreme 
Court    and    the    corporation    commission    had    each    one 
Democrat  and  two  Republicans. 

One  thing  was  clear  beyond  any  doubt:  New  Mexico 
was  entering  the  period  of  statehood  with  Democrats  and 
Republicans  almost  equally  balanced  and  would  have  to 
wait  for  the  future  to  determine  the  question  of  political 
control.  The  second  State  election  (1916),  though  some- 
what more  Republican  in  trend,  still  gave  the  governor- 
ship to  the  Democrats.  The  third  (1918)  showed  small 
Republican  majorities  all  along  the  line.  The  fourth 
(1920)  followed  the  Nation  in  a  complete  Republican 
victory. 

292.  Growth  of  Population,  1850-1920.  --  The  census  of 
1850  showed  a  population  of  61 ,547  ;  and  in  the  next  decade 
a  steady  flow  of  immigration  caused  an  increase  of  more 
than  fifty  per  cent,  to  93,516  in  1860.  Cutting  off  the 
Territory  of  Arizona  caused  a  slight  decrease  to  91,874  in 
1870.  The  rise  to  119,565  in  1880  showed  the  influence  of 
the  railroad  which  had  entered  the  preceding  year.  That 
influence  was  particularly  noticeable  in  the  increase  to 
160,282  in  1890  and  195,310  in  1900.  Then  came  the  great 
boom  years  of  immigration  at  the  beginning  of  the  new 
century,  carrying  the  population  figure  to  327,301  in  1910 

—  an  increase  of  67.6  per  cent  in  ten  years.     The  next 
decade,  however,  showed  a  slowing  up.     The  rise  to  360,247 
in  1920  amounted  to  but  10.1  per  cent. 


246  THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

293.  Origin  and   Character  of  the   Population.  —  This 
growing  population  is  strikingly  cosmopolitan:    it  comes 
from  everywhere.    When  the  railroads  came,  90  per  cent  of 
the  people  had  been  born  in  the  Territory.     Then  rapid 
immigration  brought  great  changes.     By  1910  only  53.6 
per  cent  had  been  born  here,  whereas  46.4  per  cent  had  been 
born   outside   the   State.     Of   that   number    23,000   were 
foreigners,   chiefly  Mexicans,  with  a  very  small  number 
from  nearly  every  country  of  the  world.     The  remaining 
39.3  per  cent  were  Anglo-Americans  born  in  other  States 
of  the  Union.     This  last  figure  is  significant.     When  it  is 
remembered  that  a  large  part  of  the  population  born  in 
the  State  is  of  Anglo-American  parentage  and  that  39.3 
per  cent  of  the  total  is  made  up  of  Americans  not  born  in 
the  State,  it  will  be  seen  that  by  1910  the  Anglo-Americans 
had  become  at  least  half   the  population  of   the  State, 
probably  more.     And  the  proportion  is  rapidly  increasing 
by   immigration   from   other   States.     This   conclusion   is 
confirmed  by  the  State's  service  record  in  the  Great  War. 
Out  of  a  total  of  17,157  New  Mexicans  in  active  service 
during  the  war  only  5,437  or  31.66  per  cent  bore  Spanish 
names,  while  11,720  or  68.34  per  cent  were  non-Spanish. 

More  than  half  of  this  immigrant  population  comes 
from  the  States  west  of  the  Mississippi.  Texas,  Missouri, 
Illinois,  Oklahoma,  and  Kansas  furnish  the  largest  numbers, 
in  the  order  named,  Texas  contributing  about  three  times 
as  many  as  Missouri,  her  nearest  competitor. 

VI.    TROUBLE  ON  THE  MEXICAN  BORDER 

294.  Villa's  Raid  on  Columbus.  —  Stealing  and  cattle 
"  rustling  "  back  and  forth  across  the  Mexican  boundary, 
with  the  resulting  complaints  from  those  who  were  getting 


THE   BEGINNINGS   OF  STATEHOOD 


247 


the  worse  of  it,  was  an  old  form  of  border  trouble.  Yet  the 
United  States  had  been  on  cordial  terms  with  the  Mexican 
government  for  half  a  century  when  the  Madero  fma-tha' 
ro)  revolution  broke  out  in  Mexico  in  the  spring  of  IQII. 
The  overthrow  of  Porfirio  Diaz  (por-fe'ryo  de'as),  the  auto- 
cratic president;  the  murder  of  Madero,  the  reformer; 


VILLA  BANDITS  IN  THE  STATE  PENITENTARY 

and  the  accession  of  Huerta  (wer'ta),  the  bloodthirsty 
military  dictator,  ushered  in  a  period  of  unparalleled 
anarchy  throughout  the  Mexican  Republic.  American  fi- 
nancial interests  in  Mexico  suffered  heavily,  many  Ameri- 
cans were  killed,  and  popular  indignation  in  this  country 
ran  high. 

One  of  the  worst  of  the  bandit  leaders  infesting  north- 
ern Mexico  was  the  outlaw,  Francisco  ("  Pancho  ")  Villa 
(ve'ya).  With  everything  to  gain  and  nothing  to  lose,  he 


248 


THE  HISTORY   OF  NEW  MEXICO 


courted  American  intervention  in  order  that  he  might  ob- 
tain a  following  and  win  fame  as  a  defender  of  his  country 
against  the  foreign  invader.  In  pursuance  of  this  plan  he 
led  eight  hundred  or  a  thousand  of  his  ragged  rebel  followers 
into  the  border  town  of  Columbus,  New  Mexico,  on  the 
night  of  March  8,  1916,  "  shot  up  "  the  town,  set  fire  to 
houses,  and  killed  a  number  of  people.  The  American 

border  patrol  under  Colonel 
Herbert  Slocum,  commanding 
the  i3th  U.  S.  Cavalry,  was 
caught  unawares  and  a  number 
of  the  men  killed  before  they 
could  get  into  action.  Then  Villa 
and  his  raiders  fled.  They  were 
pursued  by  Major  Frank  Tomp- 
kins,  and  about  twenty  of  their 
number  were  killed  and  some 
others  captured. 

295.  American  Expedition  into 
Mexico. — An  American  punitive 
expedition  of  six  thousand  men 
under  Brigadier  General  John  J.  Pershing  crossed  the  border 
at  Columbus  less  than  a  week  later  (March  15)  with  orders 
to  capture  Villa  dead  or  alive.  Mexican  cooperation,  at  first 
halfhearted,  quickly  became  pure  fiction.  Evidence  of  this 
was  furnished  by  the  clash  between  Mexican  and  American 
troops  at  Parral  (par-ral'),  April  12.  Although  the  Ameri- 
can expedition  had  quickly  penetrated  four  hundred  miles 
into  northern  Mexico,  Villa  and  his  bandits,  familiar  with 
every  foot  of  the  country,  found  no  difficulty  in  keeping  out 
of  danger ;  and  now  our  government  had  to  choose  between 
dropping  the  chase  of  Villa  or  beginning  war  with  Mexico. 


GOVERNOR  E.  C.  DE  BACA 
1917 


THE   BEGINNINGS  OF  STATEHOOD  249 

It  wisely  chose  to  drop  the  chase;  and  Pershing's  men, 
soon  numbering  twelve  thousand  in  all,  sat  down  to  await 
developments. 

296.  National  Guard  Called  Out.  —  German  intrigue  in 
Mexico  was  widespread,  and  conditions  of  anarchy  on  the 
border    continued    to    increase.     Early    in    May    Villista 
(ve-yes'ta)  raids  broke  loose  again,  this  time  into  Texas, 
and  the  President  called  out  the  National  Guard  for  patrol 
duty  on  the  whole  Mexican  border.     The  New  Mexico 
guardsmen,  nearly  eight  hundred  strong,  were  the  first  to 
report  at  the  mobilization  camp  at  Columbus,  New  Mexico, 
May  12. 

The  presence  on  the  border  of  a  hundred  thousand  khaki- 
clad  young  Americans  eager  for  a  fight  furnished  a  whole- 
some object  lesson  to  our  southern  neighbors.  Villa's 
bands  disappeared  and  the  guardsmen  spent  the  summer 
with  nothing  to  do  but  to  assimilate  the  necessary  amount 
of  military  training  to  make  them  into  an  army  of  first- 
class  fighting  men. 

297.  Withdrawal  from  Mexico.  —  This  continued  quiet 
along  the  border  during  the  summer  and  fall  (1916)  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  withdrawal  of  the  American  troops 
from   Mexico.     By   the   end   of   January,    1917,    General 
Pershing  and  his  entire  force  were  moving  leisurely  back 
toward  the  border.     Villa  had  not  been  caught,  but  the 
military  demonstration  along  the  international  boundary 
had  lessened  the  disorder  to  such  an  extent  that  on  April  5 
the  National  Guard  was  mustered  out  of  the  service. 

VII.    NEW  MEXICO  IN  THE   GREAT  WAR 

298.  Mobilization.  —  The     guardsmen's     training     as 
soldiers,  however,  stood  them  in  good  stead  a  few  months 


250 


THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 


later;  for  hardly  had  General  Pershing's  expedition  been 
withdrawn  from  Mexico  when  it  became  apparent  to  careful 
observers  that  the  United  States  must  soon  enter  the 
European  War  against  the  ruthless  Central  Empires 
(Germany  and  Austria).  In  fact  Congress  declared  war 
on  April  6,  1917,  the  very  next  day  after  the  National  Guard 
had  been  mustered  out ;  and  when  President  Wilson  called 

the  National  Guard  into  Federal 
service  (April  21),  New  Mexico 
had  but  eighty-eight  members 
to  answer — the  forty-nine  officers 
and  thirty-nine  enlisted  men 
who  had  taken  the  oath  for 
induction  into  the  Federal 
service  before  the  mustering  out. 
The  work  of  recruiting  the 
National  Guard  of  the  State  to 
full  strength  was  so  well  done 
that  by  the  middle  of  June 
thirteen  hundred  guardsmen 
were  mobilized  at  Camp  Fun- 
ston,  the  new  training  camp  constructed  at  Albuquerque 
by  the  State  Council  of  Defense. 

299.  Special  Session  of  the  Legislature.  —  Five  days 
after  the  President  called  the  National  Guard  into  Federal 
service  Governor  Lindsey  called  (April  26)  the  State  legis- 
lature to  meet  in  special  session  on  May  i  to  make  pro- 
vision for  the  defense  of  the  State  and  the  assistance  of 
the  government  in  carrying  on  the  war.  It  created  a 
State  Council  of  Defense  to  mobilize  and  organize  the 
whole  resources  of  the  State,  both  moral  and  physical,  for 
the  effective  prosecution  of  the  war ;  appropriated  $750,000 


GOVERNOR  W.  E.  LINDSEY 
1917-1918 


THE   BEGINNINGS  OF  STATEHOOD  251 

to  be  used  for  war  purposes ;  and  made  provision  for 
cooperation  with  the  State  Agricultural  College  in  an 
organized  effort  to  secure  the  conservation  of  food  and 
the  production  of  larger  crops. 

This  idea  of  conservation  as  a  war  measure  played  its 
part  in  rolling  up  the  majority  of  more  than  sixteen  thou- 
sand for  the  prohibition  amendment  to  the  State  con- 
stitution that  fall  (November  6,  1917). 

300.  The  Guardsmen  Go 
Overseas . — In  September  (1917), 
after  three  months  of  intensive 
training  in  camp  at  Albuquer- 
que, the  first  detachment  of 
New  Mexico  boys,  popularly 
known  as  "Battery  A"  (of  the 
1 46th  artillery),  left  for  Camp 
Greene,  North  Carolina.  In 
October  the  others  went  to 
Camp  Kearny,  California.  For- 
tune smiled  on  Battery  A. 
Although  two  or  three  hundred  COLONEL  E.  C.  ABBOTT 
individual  New  Mexicans  had  been  able  to  get  to  Europe 
ahead  of  it,  Battery  A,  the  first  distinctively  New  Mexican 
unit  to  get  across,  was  in  France  before  the  close  of  the 
year,  ready  to  play  a  heroic  part  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Great  Spring  Drive  and  to  fire  the  opening  guns  at  Chateau- 
Thierry  (sha-to'  tye-re').  The  other  New  Mexico  guards- 
men, who  were  sent  first  to  Camp  Kearny,  California, 
though  not  sent  overseas  so  soon,  were  nearly  all  in  France 
before  the  signing  of  the  armistice,  either  under  Colonel  E. 
C.  Abbott,  as  part  of  the  Fortieth  Division  of  General  Per- 
shing's,  army  or  as  replacements  assigned  to  other  divisions. 


252 


THE   HISTORY  OF  NEW   MEXICO 


301.  The  Great  Spring  Drive,  1918.  —  The  year  1918 
opened  in  gloom.     The  Russians  were  completely  out  of  the 
war.     Germany  was  moving  her  great  eastern  army  to  the 
western  front  to  attack  the  British  and  French  with  over- 
whelming numbers  in  a  supreme  effort  to  separate  them 
and  crush  them  one  at  a  time  before  the  Americans,  could  get 
"  over  there  "  in  sufficient  numbers  to  turn  the  tide  of 

victory.  The  drive  opened 
March  21 ;  by  the  twenty- 
eighth  the  English  front  was 
broken;  and  for  three  months 
the  German  hordes  moved  for- 
ward according  to  schedule.  We 
read  our  morning  paper  with 
bated  breath,  while  dismay  and 
indignation  spurred  on  every 
American  war  activity.  Amer- 
ican forces  landed  in  France  in 
increasing  thousands  every 
month. 

302.  The  Tide  Turns.  —  By  midsummer  more   than  a 
million  fresh  American  troops  were  on  the  western  front  to 
add  their  weight  to  the  forces  of  the  weary  British  and 
French  fighters.     On  June  2,  1918,  the  American  Marine 
Corps  began  its  famous  fight  to  check  the  German  drive 
toward  Paris  at  Chateau-Thierry — and  did  it.     For  a  solid 
month  they  did  the  impossible  in  clearing  Belleau  (bel-lo') 
Wood  of  German  machine  gun  nests.     The  fighting  quali- 
ties of  the  Americans  no  longer  needed  proof.    A  new  hour 
was  about  to  strike  —  and  the  German  armies  knew  it. 

It  struck  July  18,  when  General  Foch  began  the  allied 
offensive  along  the  whole  front  from  Chateau-Thierry  on 


COLONEL 
CHARLES   M.  DEBREMONE 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  STATEHOOD 


253 


the  Marne  (marn)  to  the  river  Aisne  (an).  The  great 
victory  in  this  Second  Battle  of  the  Marne  (July  18-21) 
removed  the  German  threat  from  Paris.  September  13-13 
General  Pershing  wiped  out  the  St.  Mihiel  (san  me-yeT) 
salient  and  helped  pave  the  way  for  smashing  the  famous 
Hindenburg  Line.  The  Germans'  "  On  to  Paris  "  was  now 
to  become  "  Off  for  Berlin." 

303.  New  Mexicans  at  the  Front.  —  Though  Battery  A 
of  the  New  Mexico  National 
Guard,  a  machine  gun  unit  of 
about  a  hundred  and  ninety  men 
under  Captain  Charles  M. 
deBremond,  was  the  first  dis- 
tinctively New  Mexican  organ- 
ization to  reach  France, 
thousands  more  followed  in  the 
spring  and  summer  of  1918,  not 
as  separate  units,  but  scattered 
throughout  the  new  National 
Army.  In  every  branch  of 
the  service  they  won  distinc- 
tion. The  first  American  soldiers 
under  an  American  officer  to  capture  German  prisoners 
were  led  by  Captain  Joseph  Quesenberry,  of  Las  Cruces, 
a  former  student  in  the  State  Agricultural  College  and 
one  of  the  first  New  Mexicans  to  reach  Europe.  Later 
as  a  major  in  the  Great  Spring  Drive  he  gave  his  life  for 
freedom. 

At  Chateau-Thierry,  Belleau  Wood,  the  Second  Battle 
of  the  Marne,  St.  Mihiel,  and  a  hundred  other  bloody 
fields  New  Mexican  boys  won  honor  for  themselves  and 
glory  for  their  State.  Sons  of  the  Spanish  conquerors  and 


MAJOR 
JOSEPH    QUESENBERRY 


254 


THE  HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 


of  American  pioneers  fought  side  by  side  in  the  common 
cause,  spurred  on  by  the  same  high  patriotism,  and  aided 
by  a  hundred  patriotic  New  Mexican  Indians  formerly 
the  common  enemy  of  both. 

304.  Numbers     in      Service.  -  -  To    all    branches    of 
the  service  the  State  contributed   17,157  men,   a  larger 
number  in  proportion  to  population  than  the. average  for 

the  whole  country.  In  the 
number  of  men  contributed  to 
the  volunteer  National  Guard 
in  proportion  to  population, 
New  Mexico  stood  fifth  among 
all  the  American  States.  Yet 
nothing  else  gives  so  adequate 
an  idea  of  the  spirit  of  the 
people  as  the  fact  that  of  the 
17,157  New  Mexicans  in  active 
service  during  the  war  only 
8,505  were  in  the  draft,  and 
many  of  these  were  actually 
volunteers.  All  the  rest,  more 
than  fifty  per  cent,  were  volunteers  untouched  by  the 
draft.  Of  the  total,  5,437  (31.66  per  cent)  were  men  of 
Spanish  names;  11,720  (68.34  per  cent),  non-Spanish. 

305.  Civilian  War  Work.  —  Those  who  could  not  go  to 
the   front   did   their  part  patriotically   at   home.     Every 
organization    and    institution,    political,    social,    religious, 
and    educational,  bent   its    energies  to    the   all-absorbing 
task  of  winning  the  war.     They  backed  the  Liberty  Loans, 
supported  the  Y.  M.   C.  A.  and  Knights  of  Columbus, 
worked  for  the  Red  Cross,  and  gave  freely  of  both  time  and 
money  to  every  undertaking  for  enlarging  the  numbers,  im- 


GOVERNOR 

O.  A.  LABRAZOLO,  1919-1920 


THE   BEGINNINGS  OF  STATEHOOD 


proving  the  morale,  and  strengthening  the  fighting  qualities 
of  the  American  army. 

Units  of  the  Students'  Army  Training  Corps  were  estab- 
lished at  the  University,  the  Agricultural  College,  and  the 
Military  Institute  to  train  officers  for  the  army.  The 
whole  curriculum  in  each  of  these  institutions  was  quickly 
overhauled  and  readjusted  to 
meet  war  conditions.  Technical 
training  in  mechanical  and 
engineering  lines  was  given  by 
the  Agricultural  College,  at 
the  request  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment, to  hundreds  of  enlisted 
men  from  New  Mexico  and 
other  States. 

306.  Financial  Support.— 
Every  call  for  money  to  be 
used  by  the  great  war  organiza- 
tions was  answered  with  un- 
bounded generosity.  The  awful 
spring  of  1918,  when  the  Ger- 
mans were  driving  everything  before  them  and  the  cause 
of  freedom  was  in  its  darkest  hour,  found  in  almost  every 
New  Mexican  home  the  grim  determination  to  make  any 
sacrifice  necessary  to  defeat  the  despotic  Central  Empires. 
In  May  and  June  (1918)  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  campaign  for 
$30,000  to  be  used  among  the  men  on  the  European  battle 
front  easily  secured  $60,600.  In  July  the  Salvation  Army 
asked  for  $18,000  and  got  $24,600.  Then  came  the  United 
War  Work  drive  in  September  for  $204,000,  answered  by 
subscriptions  totaling  $286,000. 

Side   by    side    with    this    generous    and    self-sacrificing 


GOVERNOR 

MERRITT  C.  MECHEM 
1921- 


THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 


giving  in  support  of  the  great  war  organizations  went  an 
equal  loyalty  and  enthusiasm  in  lending  financial  support 
to  the  government  for  carrying  on  the  war.  In  every 
Liberty  Loan  campaign  during  the  war  New  Mexico  went 
triumphantly  "  over  the  top."  These  official  figures  for 
the  State  tell  their  own  eloquent  story : 


LIBERTY  LOAN 

DATE 

QUOTA 

SUBSCRIPTION 

First 
Second 
Third 
Fourth 

May,  1917 
October,  1917 
April,  1918 
October,  1918 

$1,375,400 
3,095,700 
3,658,500 
3,243,300 

$1,834,600 

3,945.75° 
6,001,750 
6,170,300 

A  further  subscription  of  $1,873,100  to  the  Victory  Loan 
in  April  (1919)  after  the  signing  of  the  armistice  carries 
New  Mexico's  total  to  the  magnificent  sum  of  $19,825,500. 
30T.  Looking  Forward.  —  In  the  great  National  crisis 
•New  Mexicans  had  been  called  on  to  stand  up  and  be 
counted.  They  had  acquitted  themselves  with  honor. 
The  courage,  independence,  and  resourcefulness  that  had 
been  bred  in  them  through  generations  of  pioneering  on  the 
fringe  of  civilization  made  them  daring  leaders  and  dogged 
fighters.  Returning  to  the  pursuits  of  civil  life  after  the 
great  experience  and  the  quickening  influences  of  the 
struggle,  they  are  new  men  looking  forward  to  a  bigger  and 
better  day.  New  social  energies  have  been  set  in  motion 
throughout  the  whole  population  that  will  be  mighty  forces 
in  the  building  of  a  great  and  progressive  State.  New 
Mexico  is  indeed  the  Land  of  To-morrow. 


THE   BEGINNINGS  OF  STATEHOOD  257 

GENERAL  READINGS 

L.  B.  PRINCE,  A  Concise  History  of  New  Mexico,  203-219,  233-243. 
B.  M.  READ,  Illustrated  History  of  Neiv  Mexico,  613-644. 
R.  E.  TWITCHELL,  The  Leading  Facts  of  New  Mexican  History,  II,  402- 
406,  S7S-6o6;  V,  87-420. 

J.  H.  VAUGHAN,  History  of  Education  in  New  Mexico,  Chapters  VIII,  DC. 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

1.  THE  STATEHOOD  MOVEMENT.    L.  B.  Prince,  New  Mexico's  Struggle 
for  Statehood,  24-1 28. 

2.  THE  ADOPTION  OF  THE  CONSTITUTION.     Proceedings  of  the   Constitu- 
tional Convention  (Santa  F6,  1910) ;  Constitution  for  the  Proposed  State  of 
New  Mexico  (Hearings  by  the  House  Committee  on  Territories,  Washington, 
1911). 

3.  THE  GREAT  WAR.     The  New  Mexico  Blue  Book,  1919,  63-114. 

QUESTIONS   AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Why  has  the  name  "New  Mexico"  always  been  somewhat  unpopular 
in  the  East?     Why  was  the  East  opposed  to  statehood? 

2.  How  and  when  did  the  "  Elkins  handshake  "  defeat  statehood  ?     Why 
xvere  the  Southerners  favorable  to  New  Mexico? 

3.  What  effect  did  the  coming  of  the  railroads  have  on  the  statehood 
movement?     Why?     Why  was  the  constitution  of  1889  not  ratified? 

4.  Give  an  account  of  New  Mexico's  part  in  the  Spani  h-.^  merican  War. 
Who  were  the  Rough  Riders? 

5.  What  effect  did  the  war  have  on  the  statehood  movement?     Why? 
What  other  influences  were  favorable? 

6.  Why  was  joint  statehood  with  Arizona  proposed?     Why  did  it  fail? 
When  was  the  Enabling  Act  (Statehood  Bill)  passed? 

7.  How  many  members  were  in  the  constitutional  convention?     How 
were  they  divided  by  parties?     Was  the  convention  progressive  or  con- 
servative? 

8.  What  arguments  were  advanced  against  the  ratification  of  the  con- 
stitution?    Why  was  it  ratified  by  a  large  vote?     What  was  the  "blue- 
ballot  amendment"? 

9.  Give  an  account  of  the  first  State  election.     What  advantages  did 
the  Democrats  have?    The  Republicans?     Who  won?     Why? 

10.  When  did  New  Mexico  become  a  State?     Who  was  the  first  gov- 
ernor? 

11.  Is  the  State  Democratic  or  Republican?     See  sections  282,  291. 

12.  In  what  periods  since  1850  has  population  grown  most  rapidly? 
Least  rapidly?     Why? 


258  THE   HISTORY   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

13.  Give  an  account  of  political  conditions  in  Mexico  after  1911;  the 
Columbus  Raid  and  the  .  merican  expedition  into  Mexico.     Why  was 
the  expedition  withdrawn  without  accomplishing  its  full  purpose? 

14.  What  was  the  effect  of  calling  out  the  National  Guard? 

15.  Give  an  account  of  New  Mexico's  preparations  when  the  United 
States  entered  the  Great  War.     WThy  was  a  special  session  of  the  legisla- 
ture called? 

1 6.  Tell  about  the  moving  of  the  New  Mexico  troops  overseas  and  their 
work  in  checking  the  Great  Spring  Drive  of  1918. 

17.  Who  led  the  American  troops  that  captured  the  first  German  pris- 
oners? 

18.  How  many  New  Mexicans  were  in  service  during  the  war?     What 
part  did  the  people  at  home  take?     W7hat  did  the  State  educational  in- 
stitutions do? 

19.  What  showing  did  the  State  make  in  Liberty  Loans  and  other  war 
funds? 


PART  II 
THE    GOVERNMENT   OF    NEW   MEXICO 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE   STATE    CONSTITUTION  AND   GOVERNMENT       . 

308.  Federal  and  State  Government.  —  We  live  under 
two  great  systems  of  government.     The  Federal  govern- 
ment deals  with  foreign  affairs  and  with  those  large  prob- 
lems of  home  affairs  which  are  of  sufficient  importance 
to  the  whole  people  that  they  should  be  under  uniform  laws 
throughout    the    country.     The    State    governments    have 
for   their   field    the   great  multitude   of    everyday  affairs, 
vitally  important  to  the  public  welfare,  but  not  so  general 
in  nature  as  to  call  for  uniformity  throughout  the  country. 
Under  the  authority  of    the  State  falls    the  whole  system 
of  local  government  in  counties,  cities,  towns,  and  villages. 
It  is  with  the  field  of  State  government  that  this  book  deals. 

309.  The  Importance  of  State  Government.  —  To  the 
average   citizen  the   Federal  government  seems  very  im- 
portant and   the  State  government  rather  unimportant. 
That  is  because  the  Federal  government  is  very  large  and 
powerful  and  always  over  us  whether  we  are  in  Maine  or 
California  or  Hawaii;    whereas   the  government  of  any 
one  State  extends,  over  a  very  small  area  and  ceases  to 
affect  us  as  soon  as  we  pass  out  of  the  State.     Such  an 
impression,  however,  is  incorrect ;  and  a  study  of  the  facts 
will  convince  any  one  of  the  greater  importance  of  the  State 
government  in  our  daily  life  and  business  affairs.     A  com- 
plete list  of  the  powers  exercised  by  the  government  of  New 
Mexico  would  be  a  catalog  of  all  our  social  and  business 

261 


262  THE    GOVERNMENT   OF  NEW   MEXICO 

relationships.  State  laws  regulate  marriage  and  divorce, 
the  legal  relations  of  husband  and  wife  and  of  parents  and 
children;  they  control  the  relations  of  employer  and  em- 
ployee, of  principal  and  agent ;  they  fix  contract  relations 
and  regulate  such  important  subjects  as  partnerships,  debts, 
credit,  and  insurance ;  they  regulate  the  ownership,  use, 
and  sale  of  property  ;  they  control  voting,  civil  and  religious 
rights,  and  public  education;  they  define  crime  and  pro- 
vide for  its  punishment,  except  only  those  crimes  that 
are  committed  against  the  United  States.  In  short,  the 
laws  of  New  Mexico  regulate  the  chief  affairs  of  every 
citizen  of  the  State  from  the  time  they  register  his  birth  or 
appoint  his  guardian  until  they  probate  his  will  or  divide 
up  his  estate  fairly  among  his  heirs. 

With  the  principles  of  this  important  State  government 
every  young  citizen  should  become  familiar  as  a  part  of 
his  necessary  training  for  the  intelligent  exercise  of  the 
duties  of  citizenship 

310.  Admission  of  the  State.  —  The  policy  of  making 
certain  subjects  a  matter  of  compact  between  the  United 
States  and  the  new  State,  originating  in  the  Ordinance  of 
1784,  drawn  by  Jefferson,  for  the  government  of  western 
Territories,  became  effective  in  the  Northwest  Ordinance 
of  1787  and  has  continued  through  later  American  history. 
In  accordance  with  that  long-established  custom,  the 
Enabling  Act  of  1910  required  the  new  State  to  make  in  its 
constitution  a  compact  with  the  United  States,  the  most 
important  items  of  which  were:  (i)  to  grant  complete 
religious  toleration  and  prohibit  polygamy,  (2)  not  to  tax 
the  property  of  non-residents  higher  than  the  property 
of  residents  nor  to  tax  property  of  the  Federal  government 
at  all,  (3)  to  surrender  all  public  lands  in  the  State  to  the 


THE   STATE   CONSTITUTION  AND    GOVERNMENT      263 

United  States,  and  (4)  to  accept  the  conditions  on  which 
all  grants  of  public  lands  to  the  State  had  been  made. 

311.  The  State  Constitution.  —  Belief  in  a  written 
constitution  is  an  Anglo-Saxon  tradition  that  goes  far  back 
in  history.  A  constitution  is  a  rigid  document  that  can  be 
changed,  not  by  the  government,  but  only  by  the  people 
who  made  it,  and  is,  therefore,  the  safeguard  of  the  people's 
rights  and  liberties.  It  is  the  great  fundamental  law 
passed  by  all  the  people  having  the  right  to  vote ;  and  the 
whole  government  —  even  the  legislature  —  must  obey  its 
commands. 

The  constitution  of  New  Mexico,  ratified  January  21, 
1911,  and  effective  from  January  6,  1912,  falls  logically 
into  six  divisions :  — 

1 .  The  Preamble  and  enacting  clause,  in  these  words : 
"  We,  the  people  of  New  Mexico,  grateful  to  Almighty  God 
for  the  blessings  of  liberty,  in  order  to  secure  the  advantages 
of  a  State  government,  do  ordain  and  establish  this  con- 
stitution." 

2.  The   Bill  of  Rights    (Art.   II),   enumerating  a  long 
list  of  the  fundamental  rights  of  citizens,  with  which  even 
the  government  may  not  interfere. 

3.  The  Organization  of  the  Government  as  defined  in  the 
Articles   on   the   Distribution  of   Powers    (Art.    Ill),   the 
Legislative  Department  (Art.  IV),  the  Executive  Depart- 
ment (Art.  V),  and  the  Judicial  Department  (Art.  VI). 

4.  A   long   list   of   Miscellaneous    Provisions,   many   of 
them  more  like  ordinary  statute  law  than  constitutional 
provisions :     Name    and    Boundaries    (Art.    I) ,    Elective 
Franchise  (Art.  VII),  Taxation  and  Revenue  (Art.  VIII), 
State,   County,   and  Municipal  Indebtedness   (Art.   IX), 
County    and    Municipal    Corporations    (Art.    X),    Other 


264  THE   GOVERNMENT  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

Corporations  (Art.  XI),  Education  (Art.  XII),  Public 
Lands  (Art.  XIII),  Public  Institutions  (Art.  XIV),  Agri- 
culture and  Conservation  (Art.  XV),  Irrigation  and  Water 
Rights  (Art.  XVI),  Mines  and  Mining  (Art.  XVII),  Militia 
(Art.  XVIII),  and  Miscellaneous  (Art.  XX). 

5.  The  Compact  with   the  United   States   (Art.   XXI) 
and  the  Schedule  (Art.  XXII),  providing  for  the  ratifica- 
tion of  the  constitution  and  making  temporary  arrange- 
ments for  the  Territorial  government  to  go  out  and  the 
new  State  government  to  take  over  its  functions. 

6.  Provision  for  Amendments  (Art.  XIX). 

312.  How  the  Constitution  May  Be  Amended.  —  No 
constitution  is  likely  to  meet  the  changing  conditions  of 
a  State  for  any  long  period  of  time  without  some  modifica- 
tions. If  it  is  to  last  very  long,  there  must  be  some  orderly 
method  provided  for  changing  it.  This  is  particularly 
true  where  the  constitution  contains  so  many  details. 

Amendments  to  the  State  constitution  may  be  proposed 
at  any  regular  session  of  the  legislature  by  a  majority  of 
the  whole  number  of  members  elected  to  each  house.  They 
must  then  be  voted  on  at  the  next  general  election  or  at 
a  special  election  held  not  less  than  six  months  after  adjourn- 
ment of  the  legislature,  as  the  legislature  may  provide.  If  a 
proposed  amendment  is  ratified  by  a  majority  of  the  votes 
cast  on  it,  it  becomes  a  part  of  the  constitution. 

There  are  two  important  exceptions  to  this  rule :  (i)  The 
provisions  of  the  constitution  guaranteeing  equality  of 
educational  opportunity  to  Spanish-speaking  children  (Art. 
XII,  Sees.  8,  10)  and  equality  of  political  rights  to  persons 
of  Spanish  speech  (Art.  VII,  Sees.  1,3)  may  be  amended 
only  if  the  amendment  is  submitted  by  a  three-fourths 
vote  of  the  total  membership  of  each  house  of  the  legis- 


THE   STATE   CONSTITUTION  AND    GOVERNMENT      265 

lature  and  ratified  by  three-fourths  of  the  total  vote 
of  the  State  and  by  two-thirds  of  the  total  vote  in  every 
county.  (2)  The  amending  clause  itself  (Art.  XIX,  Sec.  i) 
may  be  changed  only  by  a  general  constitutional  conven- 
tion called  to  revise  the  constitution. 

313.  Revising  the  Constitution.  —  This  process  of 
amendment  applies  only  to  changing  particular  details,  an 
article  here  or  a  section  there.  But  the  time  may  come 
when  the  people  will  want  to  revise  the  whole  document  or 
adopt  a  new  one  in  its  place.  Such  a  revision  can  be 
made  only  by  a  new  constitutional  convention.  The  prop- 
osition to  call  a  convention  at  any  time  prior  to  1946 
must  be  agreed  to  by  three-fourths  of  the  total  member- 
ship of  each  house  of  the  legislature  and  approved  by  a 
majority  of  the  votes  cast  on  the  question  at  the  next  gen- 
eral election.  After  1946  the  proposition  may  be  submitted 
by  a  two-thirds  majority  in  each  house. 

If  the  required  majority  of  the  voters  approve  the  proposi- 
tion, the  next  regular  session  of  the  legislature  will  pro- 
vide for  calling  a  constitutional  convention  of  at  least 
as  many  delegates  as  there  are  members  of  the  house  of 
representatives  (forty-nine).  Any  revision  made  by  this 
convention  or  new  constitution  adopted  by  it  will  have  no 
force  or  effect  until  submitted  to  a  popular  vote  and  ratified 
by  the  people. 

REFERENCES 

Constitution  of  New  Mexico. 

Constitution  of  the  United  States. 

J.  Q.  DEALEY,  Growth  of  American  State  Constitutions,  1-115,  *39-i49> 
254-269. 

A.  N.  HOLCOMBE,  State  Government  in  the  United  States,  3-139,  394- 
400. 

W.  B.  MUNRO,  The  Government  of  the  United  States,  372-414. 


266  THE   GOVERNMENT  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

P.  S.  REINSCH,  Readings  on  American  State  Government,  435-464. 
Standard  textbooks  on  American  Government  should  be  used  for  ref- 
erence on  all  topics  discussed  in  this  and  the  following  chapters. 

QUESTION  FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved,  That  we  should  study  our  State  Government  more  thoroughly 
even  than  the  United  States  Government. 

QUESTIONS   ON   THE   TEXT 

1.  Under  what  two  systems  of  government  do  we  live?     With  what 
problems  does  each  deal? 

2.  WTien  was  New  Mexico  admitted  into  the  Union?     What  important 
matters  did  the  Enabling  Act  require  New  Mexico  to  include  in  its  con- 
stitution as  a  compact  with  the  United  States? 

3.  Why  does  a  State  need  a  written  constitution?     What  are  the  natural 
divisions  of  the  constitution  of  New  Mexico? 

4.  How  may  the  constitution  be  amended  ?     In  what  respects  is  it  very 
difficult  ever  to  change  it?    How  may  it  be  revised? 


CHAPTER  XVII 
CIVIL  AND   POLITICAL  RIGHTS 

314.  The  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  —  The 
Federal  Constitution  prohibits  either  Congress  or  the  State 
legislature  from  (i)  depriving  us  of  our  freedom  except  as 
a  punishment  for  crime,  (2)  passing  a  bill  of  attainder 
against  us  or  punishing  us  under  an  ex  post  facto  law,  or 
(3)  depriving  us  of  life,  liberty,  or  property  without  due 
process  of  law.  It  also  prohibits  the  State  from  denying 
to  any  one  equal  protection  under  the  law. 

The  first  ten  Amendments  to  the  Federal  Constitution 
are  often  called  the  Federal  Bill  of  Rights  because  they 
restrict  the  powers  of  Congress  in  so  many  ways  in  order 
to  protect  the  people  against  governmental  interference. 
They  forbid  Congress  to  interfere  with  religious  freedom 
or  with  freedom  of  speech,  of  the  press,  or  of  assembly. 
"  Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines 
imposed,  nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted." 
No  person  may  be  punished  for  crime  except  after  a  fair 
trial  by  a  jury  of  the  county  or  district.  Every  one  shall  be 
free  from  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures. 

These  are  priceless  rights  of  freedom ;  but  we  must  not 
forget  that  the  limitations  expressed  in  these  first  ten 
amendments  to  the  Constitution  apply  only  to  the  power  of 
Congress  and  do  not  in  any  way  restrict  the  action  of  the 
State  legislatures.  The  legislature  of  New  Mexico  might 
prohibit  Catholic  and  Protestant  worship  and  make  Mor- 

267 


268  THE   GOVERNMENT  OF  NE\V   MEXICO 

monism  the  State  religion  supported  at  public  expense 
without  violating  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
—  even  the  First  Amendment. 

315.  The  Bill  of  Rights.  —  For  this  reason  New  Mexico 
has  written  into  her  constitution  a  long  and  detailed  Bill 
of  Rights  for  the  protection  of  the  people  in  both  their 
civil  and  political  rights  against  interference  by  even 
the  legislature  or  State  officers.  The  right  to  vote  and 
the  right  to  hold  office  are  political  rights.  All  our  other 
rights  are  civil  rights. 

1.  There  shall  be  complete  freedom  of  speech,  of  the 
press,  of  assemblage   (public  meeting),   of  religion;    and 
no  religion  shall  be  given  any  legal  preference  over  another. 

2.  The  people  shall  be  free  from  imprisonment  for  debt, 
from  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures  or  the  use  of  general 
search  warrants,  and  from  punishment  by  bill  of  attainder 
or  under  an  ex  post  facto  law. 

3.  No  one  shall  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property 
without  due  process  of  law,  that  is,  without  a  fair  trial  in 
open  court  according  to  the  laws  of  the  State  and  Nation. 

4.  Persons  accused  of  crime  must  have  the  privilege  of 
the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  as  a  means  of  obtaining  a  pre- 
liminary hearing  in  court  in  order  to  secure  their  freedom 
or  to  get  out  of  prison  on  bail  until  their  trial,  unless  the 
evidence  tends  to  indicate  that  they  have  committed  a 
capital  crime   (one  punishable  with  death).     If  they  are 
bailed  out,  the  amount  of  their  bail  bond  fixed  by  the 
court  must  not  be  excessive. 

5.  And  when  the  prisoner  finally  comes  into  court  to 
be  tried,  the  State  constitution  guarantees  him  a  fair  and 
impartial  trial  before  a  jury  from  the  county  or  district 
in  which  the  offense  was  committed.     He  must  have  the 


CIVIL  AND    POLITICAL  RIGHTS  269 

right  to  "  defend  himself  in  person,  and  by  counsel " 
(attorneys),  and  cannot  be  compelled  to  give  evidence 
against  himself.  Unless  the  jury  is  convinced  of  his 
guilt,  he  goes  free ;  but  if  he  is  convicted  (found  guilty) , 
no  "  excessive  fines  [shall  be]  imposed,  nor  cruel  and  un- 
usual punishments  inflicted "  upon  him.  That  is,  his 
punishment  must  bear  a  reasonable  relation  to  his  offense. 

6.  Finally,  as  a  protection  to  the  individual  against  the 
severest  punishment  in  times  of  disturbance  and  intense 
passion,   the  constitution  goes  on  to    define    specifically 
the   only    offenses   which   may   be   punished    as  treason: 
"  Treason  against  the  State  shall  consist  only  in  levying 
war  against  it,  adhering  to  its  enemies,  or  giving  them  aid 
and  comfort.     No  person  shall  be  convicted  of   treason 
unless  on  the  testimony  of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt 
act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court." 

7.  This  is  a  very  wide  field  of  civil  liberty  under  law, 
which  the  constitution  has  staked  off  for  us ;  but  the  con- 
stitution (Art.  II,  Sec.  8,  Art.  VII,  Sees,  i,  3)  goes  further 
and  guarantees  our  most  precious  political  rights  against 
any  interference  by  the  legislature,  and  makes  any  amend- 
ment   of    these    provisions    practically   impossible.     "  All 
elections  shall  be  free  and  open,  and  no  power,  civil  or 
military,  shall  at  any  time  interfere  to  prevent    the   free 
exercise  of  the  right  of  suffrage."     (Art.  II,  Sec.  8.)     "  The 
right  of  any  citizen  of  the  State  to  vote,  hold  office,  or  sit  on 
juries,  shall  never  be  restricted,  abridged,  or  impaired  on 
account   of   religion,  race,  language  or  color,  or  inability 
to  speak,  read,  or  write  the  English  or  Spanish  languages." 
(Art.  VII,  Sec.  3.) 

316.   Freedom   of   Speech.  —  Some   of   the  words   and 
phrases  in  the  Bill  of  Rights  are  unfamiliar  terms  or  terms 


270  THE   GOVERNMENT  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

used  with  special  meanings.     We  must,  therefore,  try  to 
get  a  correct  understanding  of  them. 

Freedom  of  speech  and  the  press  does  not  mean  that  we 
may  say  anything  we  please  about  other  people,  but  that  we 
may  freely  discuss  public  questions,  policies  of  government, 
the  acts  of  public  officials,  the  record  of  those  who  seek  to 
be  public  officials,  and  the  actions  of  any  other  individuals 
or  groups  of  individuals,  provided  always  that  we  do  it 
without  malice  and  with  the  public  interest  in  view.  Of 
course,  if  we  speak  falsely  and  maliciously  about  others, 
we  are  violating  the  law  against  slander ;  if  we  publish 
those  same  falsehoods,  we  are  violating  the  law  against 
libel ;  and  the  constitution  will  not  then  save  us  from 
punishment. 

317.  Freedom  of  Assembly.  —  Nor  does  the  right  of  the 
people   to   assemble  for  lawful  purposes  mean  that  any 
number  of  people  may  assemble  anywhere  and  any  time 
they  please.     A  gathering  of  a  thousand  people  on  a  busy 
street  corner  in  Albuquerque  during  working  hours  to  hear 
some  soap-box  orator  discuss  the  latest  vagaries  of  socialism 
might  be  entirely  harmless  in  itself ;  but  it  would  certainly 
obstruct  traffic,  and  the  police  might  require  the  crowd  to 
scatter  or  move  to  some  vacant  lot,  so  that  busy  people 
might  go  about  their  business  without  hindrance. 

318.  Religious  Freedom.  —  Every  citizen  has  complete 
freedom  of  religious  opinion  and  religious  worship,  with 
which  the  State  legislature  cannot  interfere ;   nor  may  the 
State   legislature   "  establish "    any   religion   or   give  any 
preference  to  one  religious  organization  over  another.     This 
does  not  mean  that  we  may  do  anything  we  please  in  the 
name  of  religion.     It  does  not  grant  freedom  for  all  sorts  of 
social  practices.     The  Mormon  may  freely  profess  his  creed 


CIVIL  AND   POLITICAL   RIGHTS  271 

and  worship  in  his  own  fashion,  but  he  must  not  violate  the 
law  against  bigamy  by  marrying  two  wives. 

319.  Unreasonable    Searches    and    Seizures.  —  In    the 
years  before  the  American  Revolution  the  colonists  had 
much  trouble  with  the  English  kings  about  issuing  general 
search  warrants  (called  "  writs  of  assistance  "),  which  en- 
abled the  kings'  officers  to  search  anywhere  for  anything. 
That  opened  the  way  for  abusing  the  writ  by  "  unreasonable 
searches  and   seizures,"   and  led   to   the   development  in 
American  law  of  the  principle  that  every  search  warrant 
must  be  a  special  warrant  naming  a  particular  place  to  be 
searched  and  particular  things  to  be  searched  for.     This 
is  the  protection  which  the  State  constitution  guarantees. 

320.  Bill  of  Attainder.  —  It  was  a  common  custom  long 
ago  for  legislatures  to  pass  a  special  act  now  and  then 
providing  for  the  punishment  (usually  with  death)  of  some 
particularly  hated  political  opponent,  who  had  committed 
no  crime  for  which  he  could  be  convicted  under  the  law  in 
open  court.     Such  a  legislative  act  providing  for  punish- 
ment without  trial  was  called  a  bill  of  attainder.     The  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States  forbids  either  Congress  cr 
the  States  to  pass  a  bill  of  attainder ;   and  the  State  con- 
stitution repeats  the  prohibition. 

321.  Ex  Posto  Facto  Laws.  —  An  ex  post  facto  law  is 
a  law  applying  to  acts  done  before  the  law  was  passed,  in 
such  way  as  (a)  to  prescribe  a  punishment  for  an  act  which 
was  not  punishable  at  the  time  it  was  committed,  or  (b)  to 
increase  the  punishment  for  the  offense,  or  (c)  to  make 
it  easier  to  convict  the  accused  person.     It  applies  only 
to  criminal  cases,  not  to  civil  actions. 

322.  Liberty  under  Law.  —  We  have  learned  from  the 
study  of  our  civil  rights,  such  as  freedom  of  speech,  freedom 


272  THE   GOVERNMENT  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

of  the  press,  freedom  of  assemblage,  freedom  of  religion, 
and  freedom  from  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  that 
the  very  corner  stone  of  free  government  is  liberty  under  law. 
The  purpose  of  the  Bill  of  Rights  is  to  insure  every  in- 
dividual the  largest  and  freest  opportunity  for  his  own  de- 
velopment and  happiness  so  long  as  he  does  not  interfere 
with  the  rights,  liberties,  and  happiness  of  others. 

REFERENCES 

Constitution  of  New  Mexico,  Art.  II,  the  Bill  of  Rights;    Art.  VII. 
Elective  Franchise;  Art.  XII,  Education. 

Constitution  of  the  United  States,  Art.  I,  Sees.  9,  10;    Amendments 

i-x,  XIH-XV,  xvn,  xrx. 

J.  Q.  DEALEY,  Growth  of  the  American  State  Constitutions,  116-138,  150- 
159,  270-284. 

W.  B.  MUNRO,  The  Government  of  the  United  States,  71-87,  288-298. 

QUESTION  FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved,  That  our  civil  rights  are  more  important  than  our  political 
rights. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  TEXT 

1.  How  does  the  Federal  Constitution  protect  us  from  Congress  and  the 
State  legislatures?     Why  were  the  first  ten  amendments  added  to  the 
Constitution  ? 

2.  Why  does  each  State  have  a  Bill  of  Rights?     Wrhat  rights  are  secured 
to  us  by  the  New  Mexico  Bill  of  Rights?     How  is  treason  defined? 

3.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  "  freedom  of  speech  "?     May  people 
assemble  for  lawful  purposes  any  time  and  anywhere  they  please?     Why? 
Why  may  not  the  Mormon  marry  two  wives? 

4.  What  were  "writs  of  assistance"?     If  you  believed  that  some  man 
had  stolen  some  of  your  property,  how  could  you  have  him  searched  ? 

5.  What  is  a  bill  of  attainder? 

6.  What  is  the  difference  between  civil  and  criminal  cases?    To  which 
does  the  ex  post  facto  law  apply?     What  is  an  ex  post  facto  law? 

7.  In  our  free  government  why  may  we  not  do  as  we  please? 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
NOMINATIONS  AND  ELECTIONS 

323.  The  Power  of  the  People.  —  "  All  political  power 
is  vested  in  and  derived  from  the  people ;   all  government 
of  right  originates  with  the  people,  is  founded  upon  their 
will,  and  is  instituted  solely  for  their  good." 

This  statement  of  the  popular  basis  of  free  government, 
taken  from  the  Bill  of  Rights  in  the  State  constitution, 
makes  it  clear  that  the  will  of  the  people  as  expressed  at 
elections  is  the  supreme  power  in  the  State,  subject  only 
to  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  The  people  may 
change  the  qualifications  for  voting,  change  the  constitu- 
tion, or  even  abolish  it  and  put  a  new  one  in  its  place. 

324.  Nominations.  —  The    process    of    selecting   public 
officials  goes  through  two  separate  and  distinct  stages  - 
nomination  and  election. 

The  nomination  of  candidates  for  office  is  a  party  affair, 
hot  yet  regulated  by  the  laws  of  the  State,  but  conducted 
according  to  certain  fairly  well-defined  customary  rules 
of  procedure  followed  by  each  political  party.  In  general 
it  is  somewhat  after  the  following  fashion.  The  leaders 
of  a  party  in  each  precinct  hold  a  caucus  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  summer  before  the  November  elections  and  choose 
delegates  to  a  county  convention.  The  county  convention 
composed  of  these  precinct  delegates  selects  delegates  to 
the  State  convention  of  the  party.  The  State  convention 
adopts  a  "  platform,"  setting  forth  the  party  principles 

273 


274  THE   GOVERNMENT  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

and  the  issues  of  the  coming  campaign,  praising  its  own 
achievements  and  denouncing  the  record  of  the  opposing 
party,  and  nominates  the  party  ticket  of  candidates  for 
State  and  National  offices.  A  few  weeks  later  another 
convention  in  each  county  nominates  its  "  ticket  "  of  county 
officers  and  members  of  the  legislature. 

Sometimes  these  platforms  contain  "  planks  "  intended 
especially  to  catch  a  few  doubtful  voters,  but  which  the 
party  has  no  intention  of  living  up  to  —  "  planks  "  which 
some  one  has  said  are  made  to  climb  in  on,  but  not  to  stand 
on  when  once  in  office.  Such  practices  deserve  the  severest 
punishment  the  voters  can  give. 

In  presidential  election  years  the  process  is  slightly 
.different.  County  and  State  caucuses  and  conventions 
are  held  in  the  spring  with  but  little  business  except  to 
take  stock  of  the  party's  condition  and  prospects  and  to 
select  delegates  to  the  National  convention.  Then  in  the 
fall,  when  the  National  convention  is  over,  new  conventions 
meet  to  nominate  county,  State,  and  district  candidates. 

Delegates  to  district  conventions  for  the  nomination 
of  district  judges,  district  attorneys,  and  members  of  the 
legislature  from  districts  including  more  than  one  county 
are  selected  in  the  same  way  as  delegates  to  the  State  con- 
vention. 

325.  The  Campaign.  —  From  the  nominating  conven- 
tions until  election  day  is  the  exciting  period  of  the  year. 
The  State  convention  of  each  party  puts  the  financing  and 
management  of  its  campaign  in  the  hands  of  a  State  central 
committee  under  the  leadership  of  a  chairman  who  becomes 
its  active  manager.  He  begins  a  "  campaign  of  education  " 
to  show  why  all  good  citizens  should  support  the  principles 
and  candidates  of  his  party.  He  arranges  speaking  tours 


NOMINATIONS  AND   ELECTIONS  275 

by  his  candidates  and  other  "  spellbinders  "  of  the  party, 
sends  party  literature  broadcast  over  the  State,  and  or- 
ganizes an  elaborate  system  of  publicity  through  the  daily 
and  weekly  newspapers.  His  arguments  are  addressed 
primarily  to  the  independent  voters,  for  he  well  knows 
that  the  only  argument  necessary  for  those  who  "  vote  it 
straight  "  is  a  sufficient  appeal  to  their  prejudices  to  get 
them  to  the  polls  on  election  day. 

326.  Campaign  Expenses. — There  are  legitimate  uses 
for  considerable  sums  of  money  to  carry  on  a  proper  cam- 
paign of  publicity  and  information  concerning  candidates 
and  party  issues ;    but  unfortunately  some  unscrupulous 
politicians  and  business  interests  are  ready  to  spend  money 
dishonestly  in  order  to  get  into  office  or  to  get  their  friends 
in.    To  discourage  this  abuse  and  keep  elections  as  clean 
as  possible  the  laws  of  the  State  forbid  any  candidate  to 
contribute  or  spend  for  campaign  purposes  (except  his  own 
traveling  expenses)  more  than  ten  per  cent  of  the  annual 
salary  of  the  office  he  is  seeking,  and  require  him  to  file  a 
sworn  statement  of  his  campaign  expenses  ten  days  before 
the  election.     Then  within  thirty  days  after  the  election 
the  treasurer  of  every  political  committee,  State,  county, 
or  otherwise,  must  file  with  the  county  clerk  a  complete 
statement  of  all  funds  received  and  paid  out  by  him  during 
the  campaign. 

327.  The   Independent   Voter.  —  In   some   counties   of 
the  State  the  parties  are  so  uneven  in  strength  that  the 
•hidebound  partisan  who  votes  a  "  straight  ticket  "  controls 
in  every  election.     This  is  notably  true  in  some  of  the 
Democratic  counties  on  the  east  side  and  of  the  Republi- 
can counties  of  the  north  and  west.    But  fortunately  in 
the  State  as  a  whole  the  voting  strength  of  the  two  great 


276  THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   NEW   MEXICO 

parties  is  so  evenly  divided  that  the  independent  voter 
generally  holds  the  balance  of  power.  Every  good  citizen 
should  study  carefully  the  issues  in  each  election  and  the 
personal  record  of  each  candidate  in  order  that  he  may 
serve  the  State  by  voting  intelligently ;  for  the  casting 
of  an  honest  and  intelligent  ballot  is  not  only  a  high  priv- 
ilege, but  one  of  the  sacred  duties  of  good  citizenship. 
Good  citizens  have  no  moral  right  to  be  slackers  and  stay 
away  from  the  polls  and  allow  the  most  unscrupulous 
elements  of  society  to  control  the  government  of  the  State. 

328.  The  Election.  —  A  general  election  is  held  on 
Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November  of  every 
even-numbered  year.  Sixty  days  before  each  general 
election  the  county  commissioners  appoint  a  registration 
board  of  three  members  (not  more  than  two  from  the  same 
political  party)  in  each  precinct  in  the  county  to  "  register  ?) 
or  make  an  official  list  of  the  qualified  voters  in  the  precinct 
or  election  district.  This  registration  of  voters  is  a  wise 
precaution  against  dishonest  persons  voting  several  times 
in  different  precincts. 

The  commissioners  also  appoint  judges  of  election  in  the 
same  way ;  and  the  county  clerk  furnishes  ballot  boxes, 
poll  books,  and  printed  tickets  for  all  parties  at  county 
expense.  On  election  day  the  polls  are  open  from  nine 
o'clock  in  the  morning  until  six  in  the  afternoon.  During 
that  time  the  party  workers  devote  their  energies  to  getting 
out  the  fullest  possible  vote. 

When  the  voting  is  finished,  the  election  officers  count 
the  vote  of  the  precinct  and  transmit  the  result,  with  the 
ballot  box  and  one  poll  book,  to  the  county  clerk,  and  send 
a  similar  report,  with  the  other  poll  book,  to  the  secretary 
of  state  at  Santa  Fe.  The  county  commissioners  act  as  a 


NOMINATIONS  AND   ELECTIONS  277 

county  canvassing  board  and  in  turn  report  the  vote  of  the 
whole  county  for  all  district,  State,  and  National  officers 
to  the  State  canvassing  board  at  Santa  Fe,  composed  of  the 
governor,  the  secretary  of  state,  and  the  chief  justice  of  the 
State  Supreme  Court.  This  board  makes  the  official  count 
and  anounces  the  result  for  the  State. 

329.  United  States  Senators,  Congressmen,  and  Presi- 
dential Electors.  —  United  States  senators,  representatives 
in  Congress,  and  presidential  electors  are  nominated  and 
chosen  at  the  general  elections  in  exactly  the  same  manner 
as  State  officers.     In  case  of  a  vacancy  in  our  representa- 
tion in  the  United  States  Senate  the  governor  fills  it  by 
appointment  until  the  next  election,  when  a  senator  will  be 
chosen  for  the  unexpired  term.     The  presidential  electors 
meet  in  Santa  Fe  and  cast  their  ballots  for  President  of  the 
United  States  on    the  second  Monday  in   January  after 
their  election. 

A  vacancy  in  this  "  electoral  college  "  is  filled  by  a 
person  chosen  by  the  remaining  members.  If  they  fail  to 
do  it,  the  governor  appoints  an  elector  nominated  by  the 
chairman  of  the  State  central  committee  of  the  party  to 
which  the  absent  member  belonged. 

Congressmen  are  chosen  at  every  general  election. 
Presidential  electors  are  chosen  every  four  years  —  in  the 
years  exactly  divisible  by  four.  United  States  senators 
with  six-year  terms  are  chosen  at  the  general  election  in 
November  before  a  senator's  term  expires  in  March. 

330.  The    Plurality  Rule.  —  The  law  provides  that  in 
all  elections    the  person  having  the  highest    number  of 
votes   (a  plurality)   for  a  given  office  shall  be  declared 
elected.     This  plurality  rule  avoids  the  failure  of  election 
and  consequent  necessity  for  a  new  election  that  might 


278  THE   GOVERNMENT  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

frequently  occur  when  there  are  more  than  two  candidates 
for  the  same  office  and  the  vote  is  close,  if  an  absolute 
majority  were  necessary  to  elect.  Only  in  case  of  a  tie 
can  there  be  a  failure  to  elect ;  and  then  if  it  is  a  State  office, 
the  two  houses  of  the  legislature  sitting  together  will  elect 
by  joint  ballot  one  of  the  candidates  having  the  highest 
number  of  votes. 

331.  Who  May  Vote.  —The  State  makes  no  distinction 
of  race,  language,  or  religion.     Every  citizen  of  the  United 
States  twenty-one  years  of  age,  who  has  resided  in  the 
State  twelve  months,  in  the  county  ninety  days,  and  in  the 
precinct  where  he  wishes  to  vote  thirty  days  next  preceding 
the  election  may  vote  at  any  and  all  elections  held  under 
the  laws  of  the  State. 

332.  Who  May  Not  Vote.  —  The  privilege  of  a  voice  in 
our  government  is  a  premium  set  on  intelligence  and  good 
citizenship.     It    is,    therefore,    denied    to    idiots,    insane 
persons,  and  persons  convicted  of  a  felonious  or  infamous 
crime,    unless    restored    to   political   rights.     Indians   not 
taxed  are  also  excluded  —  the  only  case  of  race  distinction 
in  the  qualifications  for  voting. 

Then  there  is  the  whole  class  of  people  who  are  not 
citizens  of  the  United  States  who  have  no  right  to  any  voice 
in  our  government  —  and  never  should  have  unless  they 
love  our  country  enough  to  become  citizens  and  swear 
allegiance  to.  its  laws  and  government.  But  they  can 
remove  their  disqualification  by  becoming  naturalized 
citizens.  Even  persons  who  have  served  terms  in  the 
penitentiary  may  be  restored  to  full  political  rights  by 
special  action  of  the  governor. 

333.  Citizenship.  —  "All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in 
the  United  States,  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof, 


NOMINATIONS   AND   ELECTIONS  279 

are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  State  wherein 
they  reside." 

Most  of  the  people  living  in  the  State  are  citizens  of 
the  United  States  by  birth.  Those  who  are  not  citizens 
by  birth  may  become  citizens  by  naturalization.  To  do 
this  they  must  (i)  go  before  a  State  district  court  or  a 
Federal  court  and  renounce  allegiance  to  the  country  from 
which  they  came  and  declare  their  intention  to  become 
American  citizens ;  and  (2)  at  least  two  years  later  go  into 
court  again,  swear  allegiance  to  the  United  States,  and 
secure  full  citizenship.  This  second  step  cannot  be  taken 
until  they  have  been  residents  of  the  United  States  at  least 
five  years.  Orientals  (Chinese,  Japanese,  and  some  others) 
cannot  be  naturalized. 

Every  citizen  of  the  United  States  who  resides  in  New 
Mexico  is  a  citizen  of  the  State. 

334.  Woman  Suffrage.  —  Under  the  State  constitution 
women  were  allowed  to  vote  only  in  school  elections,  but 
not  at  general  elections;  and  the  franchise  provisions 
(Art.  VII,  Sees,  i,  3)  were  made  so  nearly  impossible  of 
amendment  that  full  woman  suffrage  could  hardly  have 
been  hoped  for  by  State  action  in  the  next  generation.  All 
this,  however,  has  been  changed  by  the  Nineteenth  Amend- 
ment to  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  (1920) 
granting  to  women  the  right  to  vote  on  terms  of  entire 
equality  with  men.  This,  and  this  only,  gives  us  "  uni- 
versal suffrage." 

REFERENCES 

Constitution  of  New  Mexico,  Art.  VII,  Elective  Franchise. 
Platforms  of  the  different  parties  in  recent  State  and  National  elec- 
tions. 

Sample  ballots  used  by  the  different  parties  in  your  county. 


280  THE   GOVERNMENT    OF  NEW   MEXICO 

New  Mexico  Statutes  Annotated   (Code)   of   1915,    Chapter  XXXII, 
Elections ;  Session  Laws  of  later  dates. 

A.  N.  HOLCOMBE,  State  Government  in  tJie  United  States,  143-239. 

W.  B.  MUNRO,  The  Government  of  tlte  United  States,  473-488. 

P.  S.  REINSCH,  Readings  on  American  State  Government,  364-434. 

QUESTION  FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved,  That  the  independent  voter  is  a  more  valuable  citizen  than  the 
man  who  "votes  it  straight." 

QUESTIONS  ON   THE   TEXT 

1.  How  is  the  nomination  of  candidates  for  office  carried  on?     Is  it 
always  the  same? 

2.  Into  whose  hands  is  the  campaign  placed?     What  are  his  principal 
duties? 

3.  How  are  campaign  expenses  regulated  in  New  Mexico? 

4.  When  is  the  general  election  held?     How  is  it  carried  on? 

5.  Who  compose  the  State  canvassing  board ?     What  is  its  duty? 

6.  How  are  United  States  senators,  representatives,  and  presidential 
electors  chosen  ? 

7.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  majority  and  a  plurality? 

8.  Who  may  vote  in  New  Mexico?     Who  is  barred  from  voting?     May 
aliens  vote?    Why? 

9.  When  and  how  did  the  women  of  New  Mexico  obtain  the  right  to 
vote? 


CHAPTER   XIX 
THE   STATE  LEGISLATURE 

335.  Composition  and  Sessions.  —  The  State  legislature 
is  composed  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives. 
The  Senate  has  twenty-four  members ;    the  House,  forty- 
nine. 

Regular  sessions  of  the  legislature  are  held  every  two 
years  and  cannot  exceed  sixty  days  in  length.  They  begin 
on  the  second  Tuesday  in  January  after  each  general 
election;  that  is,  in  the  odd-numbered  years.  Special 
sessions  may  be  called  by  the  governjr  at  any  time  when 
in  his  judgment  the  public  interest  may  require  such  action. 
But  a  special  session  cannot  continue  more  than  thirty 
days,  nor  transact  any  business  except  such  as  relates  to 
the  specific  purposes  mentioned  by  the  governor  in  his 
proclamation  calling  the  session.  All  sessions  must  be  held 
at  the  State  capital  and  must  be  open  to  the  public. 

336.  Legislative  Districts.  —  For  choosing  members  of 
the  legislature  the  State  is  divided  into  twenty-four  sena- 
torial districts  and  thirty  representative  districts  (Art.  IV, 
Sec.  41).     In  general  each  county  is  a  district,  but  certain 
groups  of  counties  have  been  joined  together  in  such  fashion 
that  the  same  county  is  included  in  two  or  even  three 
districts.     For  example,  San  Miguel  County  is  in  the  first, 
second,     and     third     senatorial    districts;      and    Socorro 
County  is  in  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  dis- 

281 


282  THK    CiOYERNMENT    OF    NEW    MEXICO 

tricts.     Such  districting  of  a  State,  if  done  to  gain  some 
partisan  advantage,  is  known  as  gerrymandering. 

The  constitution  permits  a  redistricting  of  the  State  for 
representation  in  the  legislature  once  every  ten  years,  - 
by  the  first  session  of  the  legislature  after  the  publication  of 
each  census,  —  but  does  not  require  that  such  reapportion- 
ment  shall  be  made. 

337.  Qualifications    of    Members.  —  Members    of    the 
legislature    must   be    citizens    of    the    United    States    and 
qualified  voters  of  the  district  in  which  they  are  elected, 
and  must  have  been  residents  of  the  State  for    at   least 
three  years  next  preceding  their  election.     This    excludes 
from  the  legislature  all  foreigners  and  temporary  residents. 
A  further  disqualification,  which  does  not  apply  at  the 
time  of  election,  is  that  no  legislator  shall  at  the  time  of 
going  into  office  hold  any  county.  State,  or  National  office, 
except  that  of  notary  public  or  an  unpaid  office  in  the  State 
militia.     Representatives    must    be    at    least    twenty-one 
years    old    and    senators    twenty- five.     The    requirement 
that  legislators  must  be  voters  disqualified  women  prior 
to  the  passage  of  the  Nineteenth  Amendment  to  the  Fed- 
eral Constitution. 

338.  Privileges    and    Disabilities     of    Members.  —  In 
order  that  members  of  the  legislature  may  have  entire 
freedom  of  speech  and  action  while  performing  their  duties, 
it  is  important  that  they  should  be  free  from  interference  by 
either  individuals  or  other  branches  of  the  government. 
The  Constitution,   therefore,  wisely  grants  them  freedom 
from  arrest  during  sessions  of  the  legislature,   and  while 
going  to  and  returning  from  such  sessions,  except  in  cases  of 
treason,  felony,  or  breach  of  the  peace.     It  likewise  grants 
them  freedom  of  speech  in  the  legislative  halls,  and  forbids 


THE  STATE   LEGISLATURE  283 

legal  action  against,  them  for  any  speech  made  or  vote  cast 
on  any  measure  under  consideration. 

Members  may  not  be  appointed  to  any  other  office  in 
the  State.  Nor  may  they  be  appointed  to  any  office 
created  during  their  term,  nor  profit  by  any  contract 
authorized,  for  at  least  a  year  after  the  expiration  of  their 
term  as  members  of  the  legislature.  And  as  a  check  on 
undue  railroad  influence,  they  are  forbidden  to  ride  on  a  pass 
or  to  accept  transportation  on  terms  not  open  to  the  general 
public. 

339.  Compensation  and  Term  of  Office.  —  Members 
of  the  legislature  receive  five  dollars  "  for  each  day's 
attendance  "  and  traveling  expenses  at  the  rate  of  ten 
cents  a  mile  for  the  distance  traveled  in  going  to  the  capital 
and  returning  home  by  the  usually  traveled  route  once 
each  session.  They  are  forbidden  to  receive  any  other 
compensation. 

Representatives  are  elected  for  a  term  of  two  years 
and  serve  in  only -one  regular  session  unless  they  are  re- 
elected.  Senators  have  a  term  of  four  years,  and  thus 
serve  in  two  regular  sessions ;  yet  they  are  all  elected  at 
one  time,  their  legislative  organization  breaks  up  at  the 
close  of  each  session,  and  at  the  beginning  of  their 
second  session  they  must  reorganize  just  as  if  they  had 
never  assembled  before.  This  nullifies  the  very  reason 
for  the  longer  term  and  violates  the  general  American 
principle  that  when  the  upper  house  of  a  legislature  has  a 
longer  term  than  the  lower,  it  should  be  a  continuing  body, 
only  part  of  its  members  going  out  of  office  at  a  time. 

A  constitutional  amendment  providing  for  half  of  our 
senators  to  go  out  of  office  every  two  years  would  greatly 
improve  the  quality  of  the  Senate's  work  by  having  at 
least  twelve  experienced  men  in  every  session. 


284  THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   NEW    MEXICO 

340.  Filling  Vacancies.  —  When  a  vapancy  occurs  in  the 
legislature,  it  is  filled  by  a  special  election  in  the  district 
to  which  the  vacated  seat  belongs.     Such  an  election  is 
called,  and  the  date  for  holding  it  fixed,  by  the  governor. 
These  special  elections  may  frequently  occur  for  members 
of  the  Senate,  whose  term  is  four  years ;   but,  as  members 
of  the  House  are  elected  for  but  two  years  and  serve  in  only 
one  regular  session,  it  is  seldom  necessary  to  fill  vacancies 
in  that  body  unless  a  special  session  of  the  legislature  is 
to  be  called. 

341.  Powers   and   Duties   of  the   Separate   Houses.  - 
Each  house  regulates  its  own  affairs  in  accordance  with  the 
provisions  of  the  State  constitution.     Each  elects  its  own 
officers,  except  the  presiding  officer  of  the  Senate,  makes 
its  own  rules,  disciplines  its  own  members  even   to  the 
extent  of  expulsion,  keeps  its  own  Journal,  and  decides  all 
contests  between  persons  claiming  to  have  been  elected  to 
its  membership.     These  contested  elections  are  frequently 
settled  on  partisan  grounds,  the  contestant  who  belongs  to 
the  dominant  party  being  seated  regardless  of  the  merits  of 
the  case.     Such  abuses  should  not  be  tolerated. 

The  House  of  Representatives  has  the  sole  power  to 
impeach  State  officials.  The  Senate  is  the  court  before 
which  all  impeachments  are  tried.  If  the  governor  or 
lieutenant  governor  is  impeached,  the  chief  justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court  presides  at  the  trial.  The  Senate's  approval 
is  also  necessary  for  most  regular  appointments  made  by 
the  governor. 

Impeachment  means  the  formal  accusation  brought 
against  an  officer  by  the  House.  When  the  House  makes 
its  formal  charges  against  an  officer  before  the  Senate,  he  is 
impeached.  Whether  or  not  he  is  to  be  convicted  remains  to 


THE   STATE   LEGISLATURE  285 

be  determined  by  the  trial.  The  vote  of  two  thirds  of  the 
total  membership  (sixteen  members)  of  the  Senate  is 
necessary  to  convict.  All  State  officers,  both  executive 
and  judicial,  and  district  judges  are  liable  to  impeachment 
"  for  crimes,  misdemeanors,  and  malfeasance  in  office." 
This  does  not  include  members  of  the  legislature,  who,  in  a 
limited  sense,  are  not  State,  but  district  officers.  If  an 
impeached  officer  is  convicted,  the  Senate  may  dismiss 
him  from  office  and  disqualify  him  for  holding  any  office 
or  voting  in  the  State. 

One  bad  feature  about  our  impeachment  procedure  is 
that  the  mere  fact  of  impeachment  forces  an  official  out  of 
office  until  he  is  acquitted.  It  violates  the  sound  principle 
of  law  followed  in  Federal  impeachments,  by  presuming 
the  officer  guilty  until  he  proves  his  innocence.  The 
presumption  should  be  that  he  is  innocent  unless  he  is 
proved  guilty. 

342.  Powers  of  the  Legislature.  —  The  Constitution  of 
the  United  States,  Federal  statutes  and  treaties,  and  the 
constitution  of  New  Mexico  are  the  supreme  law  of  New 
Mexico ;    and  the  State  legislature  must  not  pass  any  act 
in  conflict  with  them.     If  it  does,  the  courts  will  declare 
that  act  unconstitutional,  that  is,  contrary   to  the    con- 
stitution and,  therefore,  not  law.     On  the  other  hand,  all 
powers  not  delegated  to  the  Federal  government  by  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States  nor  denied  by  it  to  the 
States  are  reserved  to  the  States.     These  powers,  as  we 
have  seen  (sec.  309),  are  so  extensive  as  to  include  most 
of  the  everyday  affairs  of  life.     They  are,  in  fact,  so  ex- 
tensive that  the  people  have  forbidden  the  legislature  to 
exercise  some  of  them. 

343.  Limitations  of  the  Legislature's  Power.  —  For  these 


286  THE   GOVERNMENT  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

restrictions  we  must  look  to  the  State  constitution.  The 
most  important  of  them  have  already  been  explained  in 
the  section  on  the  Bill  of  Rights.  Others  forbid  the  legis- 
lature to  pass  local  or  special  laws  concerning  court  pro- 
cedure, the  punishment  for  crime,  collection  of  taxes, 
management  of  the  public  schools,  granting  divorces, 
changing  county  seats,  incorporating  cities,  towns,  or 
villages,  or  incorporating  or  licensing  business  enterprises. 
And  to  make  this  prohibition  of  local  and  special  legislation 
as  full  and  complete  as  possible  the  constitution  adds: 
"  In  every  other  case  where  a  general  law  can  be  made 
applicable,  no  special  law  shall  be  enacted."  The  estab- 
lished rule,  then,  is  that  our  laws  shall  be  general  in  nature, 
not  applying  to  a  single  individual  or  to  a  few  persons 
only  or  to  a  single  locality. 

344.  Organization  of  the  Legislature.  —  On  the  first 
day  of  each  session  the  House  of  Representatives  is  called 
to  order  in  its  hall  in  the  Capitol  at  Santa  Fe  by  the  secre- 
tary of  state.  After  the  roll  call  of  members,  the  House 
proceeds  to  the  election  of  a  speaker,  who  will  be  its  per- 
manent presiding  officer.  The  secretary  of  state  then 
retires ;  the  speaker  takes  the  chair ;  and  the  House  con- 
tinues the  work  of  organization  by  the  election  of  a  chief 
clerk,  sergeant  at  arms,  and  numerous  minor  officials 
and  employees,  such  as  stenographers,  messengers,  door- 
keepers, and  others.  On  the  chief  clerk  rests  the  responsi- 
bility of  keeping  the  Journal,  an  accurate  official  record 
of  everything  that  takes  place  during  the  sessions  of  the 
House.  The  sergeant  at  arms  assists  the  speaker  in  main- 
taining order,  and,  when  ordered  by  the  House,  brings  in 
enough  absent  members  to  make  a  quorum  (twenty-five). 

The  organization  of  the  Senate  takes  place  at  the  same 


THE   STATE   LEGISLATURE  287 

time  and  in  much  the  same  manner  as  that  of  the  House 
of  Representatives.  The  most  noticeable  difference  is 
that  the  lieutenant  governor,  who  is  ex  officio  president 
of  the  Senate,  calls  that  body  to  order  and  acts  as  its  per- 
manent presiding  officer.  A  president  pro  tempore  (tem- 
porary) is  elected  by  the  senators  from  among  their  own 
number  to  serve  as  presiding  officer  when  the  lieutenant 
governor  is  absent.  A  chief  clerk  and  other  officials  and 
employees  are  chosen  in  the  same  manner  and  for  the 
same  purposes  as  in  the  House  of  Representatives. 

With  the  process  of  organization  complete  in  both  houses, 
the  legislature  is  ready  to  hear  the  governor's  annual 
message  and  begin  the  work  of  making  laws. 

345.  Legislative  Committees.  —  But  we  must  not  over- 
look the  important  committee  system  through  which  they 
work.  Each  house  has  its  members  divided  into  a  great 
many  committees  in  order  to  save  time  and  give  an  opportu- 
nity for  more  careful  consideration  of  bills.  Many  bills, 
particularly  those  relating  to  railroads  and  other  corpora- 
tions, are  long  and  complicated.  For  each  house  as  a 
whole  to  give  proper  consideration  to  the  details  of  such 
bills,  along  with  the  large  volume  of  other  business,  would 
be  impossible.  Only  the  smaller  committees  can  do  that. 

The  most  important  committees  are  those  on  appro- 
priations, corporations,  education,  elections,  finance,  and 
the  judiciary.  These  committees  are  selected  in  such 
manner  as  is  prescribed  by  majority  vote  in  each  house 
-  usually  elected  in  the  Senate,  where  the  lieutenant 
governor  is  the  presiding  officer,  and  appointed  by  the 
speaker  in  the  House  of  Representatives.  The  chairman 
and  a  majority  of  the  members  of  each  committee  belong 
to  the  dominant  party. 


288  THE   GOVERNMENT  OF  NEW   MEXICO 

346.  How  Laws  Are  Made.  —  As  Jawmaking  bodies  the 
two  houses  have  equal  powers.     Any  bill  may  originate  in 
either  house  and  must  be  passed  by  both  before  it  becomes 
a  law.     When  a  bill  is  introduced  in  either  house,   the 
presiding  officer  ordinarily  refers  it  at  once  to  the  proper 
committee,  though  it  may  be  passed  without  being  "  re- 
ferred "  if  the  house  so  desires.  The  committee  examines  it 
when  the  house  is  not  in  session  and  later  reports  it  back 
to  the  house  favorably  or  unfavorably,  and  sometimes  with 
proposed  amendments.     Or  it  may  be  "  killed  in  commit- 
tee," that  is,  never  reported  at  all.   The  speaker  of  the  House 
frequently  refers  bills  that  he  does  not  want  to  pass,  to  a 
committee  which  he  knows  to  be  unfriendly  to  them  in 
order  to  have  them  "  killed  in  committee." 

When  a  bill  is  returned,  the  committee's  recommenda- 
tion that  it  pass  or  fail  is  in  no  way  binding,  though  it  is 
usually  adopted  because  the  majority  of  the  committee 
represents  the  majority  party  in  the  house  to  which  it 
belongs. 

347.  The  "  Three  Readings."  —  Every  bill  must  have 
three  "  readings  "  in  each  house  before  it  becomes  a  law. 
Any  member  may  introduce  a  bill  and  have  it  laid  on  the 
chief  clerk's  desk.  When  the  chief  clerk  numbers  it  properly 
and  announces  its  title,  that  is  its  "  first  reading."     The 
presiding  officer  then   refers  it  to  the  proper    committee. 
Usually  it  is  printed  and  distributed  to  the  members  imme- 
diately upon  its  introduction.      When  it  is  reported  out 
of  the  committee,  it  is  again  read  by  its  title  with  the  com- 
mittee's recommendation  for  its  passage  or  failure.     That 
is  its   "  second   reading."     Again   it  passes   without   dis- 
cussion or  debate  and  takes  its  proper  place  on  the  "  third 
reading  "  file.     Then,  when  it  is  reached  for  final  consider:! 


THE   STATE   LEGISLATURE  289 

tion,  it  is  up  for  regular  debate  and  amendments.  This 
"  third  reading  "  must  be  a  reading  of  the  entire  bill ;  and 
on  final  passage  the  roll  must  be  called  and  the  vote  of 
every  member  present  recorded.  To  pass,  it  must  receive 
the  approval  of  a  majority  of  the  members  present. 

If  the  bill  passes,  it  is  then  sent  to  the  other  house  to 
have  substantially  the  same  process  repeated,  except  that 
it  is  not  reprinted. 

Resolutions  1  pass  in  much  the  same  manner  as  bills 
except  that  there  need  be  only  one  "  reading  "  and  no  roll 
call,  though  resolutions  proposing  constitutional  amend- 
ments must  pass  by  a  majority  of  the  total  membership 
of  each  house  on  roll  call. 

348.  The  Governor's  Approval  or  Veto.  — When  a  bill 
has  passed  both  houses,  it  then  goes  to  the  governor  for 
his  approval  or  veto.  If  he  approves  it,  he  signs  it  and 
deposits  it  with  the  secretary  of  state.  It  then  becomes 
law.  But  if  he  disapproves  a  measure  —  vetoes  it  —  he 
returns  it  to  the  house  in  which  it  originated,  with  a  state- 
ment of  his  objections,  called  a  veto  message.  It  may 
still  be  passed  over  his  veto  by  a  two-thirds  majority 
of  the  members  present  and  voting  in  each  house  and  be- 
come law  without  his  signature.  Or,  the  bill  may  become 
"  law  by  limitation  "  without  his  signature  if  he  keeps  it 
more  than  three  days  besides  Sundays  without  either 
signing  or  vetoing  it ;  except  that  he  has  six  days  after  the 
adjournment  of  a  session  in  which  to  sign  or  veto  the 
many  bills  that  pass  and  come  to  him  during  the  last  three 
days  of  the  session.  All  of  these  bills  that  he  does  not 

LA  resolution  is  a  formal  expression  of  the  legislative  will  in  incidental  matters  not 
properly  covered  by  statutes,  or  of  legislative  opinion  on  questions  of  policy,  or  of 
legislative  approval  or  disapproval  of  public  acts.  A  joint  resolution  requires  the 
action  of  both  houses;  a  concurrent  resolution  is  one  passed  in  the  same  words  by 
each  house  acting  independently. 


2QO  THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    NEW    MEXICO 

sign  and  deliver  to  the  secretary  of  state  have  been  killed 
by  a  "  pocket  veto." 

349.  Adjournment.  —  During  a  session  of   the  legisla- 
ture neither  house  may  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days 
(Sundays   excepted)    without   the   consent   of   the   other; 
and  final  adjournment  of  both  houses  at  the  close  of  a 
session  must  take  place  at  noon  on  a  day  agreed  upon  by 
joint  resolution.     In  the  event  of  the  two  houses  failing 
to  agree  on  a  day  there  is  no  provision  for  adjournment ; 
but  the  constitution  says  that  "  no  regular  session  shall 
exceed   sixty   days,"   and   that   "  no   special   session   shall 
exceed  thirty  days."     It  is  reasonable,  therefore,  to  con- 
clude that  any  regular  session  would  expire  by  legal  limi- 
tation at  the  end  of  its  sixty-day  term  and  that  a  special 
session  would  be  terminated  in  the  same  way  at  the  end  of 
thirty  days.     Laws  passed  after  the  expiration  of  these 
periods  fixed  by  the  constitution  would  be  invalid. 

350.  When  Laws   Go   into   Effect.  —  The   general  rule 
is  that  laws  go  into  effect  ninety  days  after  the  adjourn- 
ment of   the   legislature ;    but   there   are   two   important 
exceptions:    (i)  general  appropriations  bills  go  into  effect 
as  soon  as  passed  and  signed,  and  (2)  any  law  for  the  "  pres- 
ervation of  the  public  peace,  health,  or  safety  "  will  take 
effect  immediately  if  the  legislature  specifically  declares 
it  an  emergency  measure. 

351.  Publication  of  the  Laws.  —  At  the  close  of  each 
session  of  the  legislature  the  secretary  of  state  publishes 
in  book  form  all  the  laws  passed  by  it  and  sends  copies 
of  these    "  session  laws  "   to   the  governor,   members  of 
the  legislature,  other  State  and  county  officers,  the  courts, 
and  the  various  State  institutions.     All  this  takes  time ; 
and  long  before  the  work  is  through  the  press  and  ready 


'I  HE  STATE   LEGISLATURE  2C)l 

for  distribution  the  newspapers  of  the  State  have  given 
the  people  some  idea  of  the  contents  of  the  most  important 
laws,  chiefly  through  their  daily  and. weekly  issues  while 
the  bills  are  before  the  legislature  and  by  general  sum- 
maries at  the  close  of  the  session. 

352.  Laws  Not  Made  by  the  Legislature. — Laws  passed 
by  the  legislature  are  called  State  statutes  or  session 
laws ;  but  there  are  many  laws  in  force  in  the  State  that 
were  not  passed  by  the  legislature.  The  Constitution  of 
the  United  States,  Federal  laws  and  treaties,  and  the 
State  constitution  are  good  examples.  There  is  also 
another  great  body  of  law  in  force,  which  is  not  the  result 
of  legislative  action,  but  which  is  the  product  of  the  long 
historical  development  of  the  Latin  and  Anglo-Saxon 
peoples. 

1.  The    Spanish-Mexican    Civil    Law,  as    developed    in 
the  ancient  Roman  Empire  and  modified  by  local  condi- 
tions in  Spain  and  Mexico,  was  in  force  here  at  the  time 
of  the  American  Occupation  and  continued  as  the  rule  of 
practice  and  decision  in  the  courts  of  the  Territory,  unless 
there   was   some   statute   covering   the   case,    until    1876, 
when   the   Territorial   legislature,   in   order   to   harmonize 
our  basic  law  with   that  of  the  other  American  States, 
adopted    the    English    Common    Law.     Since    that    time 
little  of  the  Civil  Law  of  Spain  and  Mexico  remains  in 
force  in  the  State  except  as  its  principles  and  rules  have 
been  embodied  in  our  statutory  law. 

2.  The  English  Common  Law,  as  modified  by  American 
historical  development,  was  adopted  in  1876  as  the  rule 
for  both  decision   and   court  procedure  in  all  cases  not 
specifically   provided   for   by   statutory   law.     It   consists 
of  the  great  body  of  principles  and  rules  of  civil  conduct 


2Q2  THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

which  originated  in  the  common  wisdom  and  experience  of 
society,  became  in  time  established  customs,  and  finally 
received  judicial  sanction  in  the  decisions  of  English 
and  American  courts.  Because  it  is  not  to  be  found  in 
constitutions  and  statute  books  it  is  frequently  spoken  of 
as  the  "  unwritten  law."  But  we  must  avoid  the  mistake 
of  thinking  that  all  ancient  customs  are  part  of  the  Common 
Law  merely  because  they  are  ancient.  No  custom  how- 
ever ancient  is  part  of  the  Common  Law  unless  the  courts 
apply  it  and  enforce  it  in  the  decision  of  cases. 

353.  The  Referendum.  —  When  laws  derive  their  bind- 
ing force  not  from  the  authority  of  the  legislature  or  other 
representative  body  but  from  the  will  of  the  people  as 
expressed  at  the  polls,  they  are  said  to  be  made  by  direct 
legislation.  We  have  the  referendum,  which  gives  the 
people  a  final  voice  on  certain  laws  passed  by  the  legislature  ; 
but  we  do  not  have  the  initiative,  which  would  allow  the 
people  to  initiate  or  propose  laws.  New  Mexico  and 
Maryland  are  the  only  States  that  have  the  referendum 
without  the  initiative. 

The  general  rule  of  the  constitution  is  that  a  referendum 
vote  may  be  had  on  any  law  passed  by  the  legislature  except 
(i)  general  appropriation  laws  and  laws  providing  for  the 
payment  of  the  public  debt  or  interest  on  it,  (2)  laws  for 
the  preservation  of  the  public  peace,  health,  or  safety, 
(3)  laws  for  the  maintenance  of  the  public  schools  or  State 
institutions,  and  (4)  local  or  special  laws. 

The  referendum  may  be  applied  only  to  laws  passed  at 
the  last  session  of  the  legislature.  It  may  either  suspend 
the  operation  of  a  law  until  it  is  approved  by  the  people 
or  merely  bring  to  a  vote  a  law  that  has  already  gone  into 
effect.  (i)If  a  new  law  is  so  unpopular  that  within  the  period 


THE  STATE  LEGISLATURE  293 

of  ninety  days  before  it  goes  into  operation  (sec.  350) 
petitions  are  signed  by  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  voters 
in  three-fourths  of  the  counties  and  twenty-five  per  cent 
of  the  whole  State  and  filed  with  the  secretary  of  state, 
the  law  will  not  become  effective  until  it  has  been  sub- 
mitted to  popular  vote.  This  is  the  suspensive  referendum; 
that  is,  it  suspends  the  law  until  approved  by  the  people. 
Or  (2)  the  law  may  go  into  operation  and  still  be  annulled 
by  a  referendum  vote.  If  ten  per  cent  of  the  voters  in 
three-fourths  of  the  counties  and  ten  per  cent  of  the  whole 
State  petition  for  a  referendum  on  a  law  any  time  up  to 
four  months  before  the  next  general  election,  the  law  shall 
be  submitted  to  the  people  at  that  election. 

In  either  case  the  election  procedure  and  results  are 
the  same.  If  a  majority  of  the  votes  cast  on  the  law  are 
against  it,  it  will  be  annulled  and  the  law  of  the  State 
will  be  the  same  as  if  it  had  never  been  passed,  provided 
the  number  of  votes  cast  against  it  is  at  least  forty  per 
cent  of  the  total  vote  at  that  election  (for  governor,  con- 
gressmen, and  others).  On  the  other  hand,  if  a  majority 
is  for  the  law,  or  if  the  number  against  it  does  not  amount 
to  forty  per  cent  of  the  total,  the  law  stands,  if  it  is  already  in 
operation;  and  if  it  is  one  whose  operation  has  been  sus- 
pended, it  goes  into  effect  as  soon  as  the  result  of  the 
election  is  announced  by  the  State  canvassing  board. 

The  constitution  makes  the  process  so  difficult  that  no 
serious  effort  to  use  it  is  likely  to  be  made.  States  that 
have  a  workable  referendum  usually  require  referendum 
petitions  to  be  signed  by  not  more  than  five  per  cent  of 
the  voters,  without  any  three-fourths-of-the-counties  limi- 
tation, and  let  laws  stand  or  fall  on  their  own  merits, 
without  the  forty-per-cent-of- the- total- vote  requirement. 


2Q4  THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    NEW    MEXICO 

354.  Representatives  in  Congress.  —  Since  we  live 
under  Federal  law  as  well  as  State  law  it  is  proper  that 
we  should  be  represented  in  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States.  New  Mexico  has  one  member  in  the  House  of 
Representatives  elected  from  the  State  at  large  for  a  term 
of  two  years,  and  two  senators  elected  in  the  same  way  for 
a  period  of  six  years,  one  senator  being  elected  at  a  time. 
A  vacancy  in  the  House  is  filled  by  a  new  election  ordered 
by  the  governor ;  a  vacancy  in  the  Senate,  by  the  governor's 
appointment  until  the  next  election,  when  a  senator  will  be 
elected  to  fill  the  unexpired  term.  Both  senators  and  rep- 
resentatives receive  a  salary  of  $7,500  from  the  United 
States  treasury. 

REFERENCES 

Constitution  of  New  Mexico,  Art.  IV,  Legislative  Department. 

J.  Q.  DEALEY,  Growth  of  American  Slate  Constitutions,  182-228,  270-284. 

A.  N.  HOLCOMBE,  State  Government  in  the  United  States,  240-279,  401- 

444- 

W.  B.  MUNRO,  The  Government  of  the  United  States,  415-430,  501-521. 

P.  S.  REINSCH,  American  Legislatures  and  Legislative  Methods  ("Ameri- 
can State"  Series),  126-330. 

P.  S.  REINSCH,  Readings  on  American  State  Government,  41-139. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved,  That  all  sessions  of  the  legislative  committees  should  be  open 
to  the  public. 

Resolved,  That  the  constitution  should  be  amended  to  include  the  initia- 
tive and  a  more  workable  referendum. 

- 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  TEXT 

1.  What  bodies  compose  the  State  legislature?     How  many  mem- 
bers has  each?     What  are  their  qualifications?     What  privileges  have 
they? 

2.  What  is  "gerrymandering"? 

3.  Who  is  the  representative  from  your  district?     The  senator?     What 
compensation  do  they  receive?     How  long  do  they  hold  office? 


THE    STATE    LEGISLATURE  295 

4.  What  advantages  would  be  gained  by  having  the  Senate  a  continuing 
body? 

5.  What  special  powers  has  each  house?     Who  presides  if  the  governor 
is  impeached?     Just  what  does  the  term  impeachment  mean? 

6.  What  are  the  general  powers  of  the  legislature?     How  are  they 
limited  ?     How  often  are  regular  sessions  held  ?     When  ? 

7.  Who  calls  to  order  the  House  of  Representatives?     What  officers 
are  elected?     Who  presides?     How  is  the  Senate  organized?     WTho  pre- 
sides? 

8.  What  is  the  function  of  legislative  committees?     How  are  they 
chosen?     Why  is  the  method  different  in  the  two  houses? 

9.  Trace  a  bill  through  both  houses.     How  may  a  bill  be  passed  over 
the  governor's  veto ?     What  is  a  "pocket  veto " ? 

10.  When  do  laws  go  into  effect?     What  laws  not  passed  by  the  legis- 
lature are  in  force  in  the  State? 

11.  What  is  the  referendum?     The  initiative?     Why  is  the  referendum 
in  New  Mexico  difficult  to  use? 

12.  How  many  members  has  New  Mexico  in  each  house  of  Congress? 
Who  are  they? 


CHAPTER  XX 
THE   STATE   EXECUTIVE   DEPARTMENT 

355.  Composition.  —  The  executive  branch  of  the  State 
government  consists  of  the  governor,  lieutenant  governor, 
secretary   of   state,    auditor,    treasurer,   attorney  general, 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  and  commissioner  of 
of  public  lands. 

356.  Qualifications,   Term   of   Office,    and   Salaries.  - 
They  must  all  be  citizens  of  the  United  States,  at  least 
thirty  years  of  age,  and  residents  of  the  State  for  the  five 
years  immediately  preceding  their  election.     The  attorney 
general  must  be  a  lawyer  licensed  to  practice  in  the  State ; 
and  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  must  be  a 
"  trained  and  experienced  educator." 

They  are  all  elected  for  a  term  of  two  years  and  may 
succeed  themselves  one  time ;  but  after  two  consecutive 
terms  they  are  ineligible  to  hold  any  State  office  for  a 
period  of  two  years.  The  lieutenant  governor,  who  may 
succeed  himself  indefinitely,  is  an  exception  to  this  rule. 

The  governor  receives  a  salary  of  $5,000  a  year;  the 
attorney  general,  $4,000 ;  and  each  of  the  others,  $3,000. 
These  salaries,  with  the  very  short  terms,  are  too  low  to 
attract  the  best  men.  But  any  time  after  January  6,  1922, 
they  may  be  increased  by  the  legislature  without  the 
necessity  for  a  constitutional  amendment. 

206 


THE    STATE    EXECUTIVE    DEPARTMENT  297 

I.     THE    GOVERNOR 

357.  Executive  Powers  and  Duties.  —  The  governor  is 
the  head  of  the  executive  branch  of  the  State  government. 
On  his  shoulders  rests  the  responsibility  of  seeing  that  the 
laws  of  the  State  are  enforced  and  peace  and  order  main- 
tained. To  do  this  effectively  he  possesses  extensive  legal 
powers,  besides  the  large  influence  that  naturally  goes 
with  his  high  office.  He  is  commander  in  chief  of  the 
State's  military  forces  except  when  they  are  in  the  service 
of  the  United  States.  If  rioting  breaks  out  in  any  part  of 
the  State,  or  there  is  danger  of  lynching,  or  any  other 
disorderly  elements  seem  likely  to  get  beyond  the  control 
of  local  officials,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  governor  to  call  out 
the  National  Guard  or,  if  necessary,  the  entire  State  militia  l 
to  preserve  the  peace  and  execute  the  laws  or  to  repel  in- 
vasion. 

For  example,  when  the  coal  miners'  strike  became 
general  in  the  fall  of  1919  and  disorders  in  the  mining 
districts  seemed  likely  to  endanger  life  and  property, 
Governor  Larrazolo  declared  those  regions  under  martial 
law ;  and  if  Federal  troops  had  not  been  available  for  serv- 
ice in  the  districts,  it  would  have  been  his  duty  to  call  out 
the  National  Guard  or  the  State  militia  to  preserve  order. 

Another  large  element  in  the  governor's  control  of 
public  affairs  lies  in  his  appointing  power.  All  officers 
whose  election  or  appointment  is  not  otherwise  specifically 
provided  for  by  the  constitution  and  laws  are  appointed  by 
the  governor  with  the  consent  of  the  State  Senate.  They 
may  also  be  removed  by  the  governor  without  consulting  the 
Senate.  These  officers  and  boards  are  very  numerous  and 
their  terms  comparatively  short,  thus  giving  each  governor 

lThe  militia  consists  of  all  ablc-bodie  male  citizens  between  eighteen  and  forty-five 
years  of  age  ;  the  National  Guard  means  only  the  organized  militia. 


298  THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    NEW    MEXICO 

a  large  opportunity  to  serve  the  State  by  appointing  many 
expert  and  efficient  officers  or  to  build  up  a  personal  political 
machine  by  appointing  his  party  henchmen,  according  as  he 
happens  to  be  a  statesman  or  merely  a  scheming  politician. 
The  governor  also  signs  all  official  commissions  issued 
by  the  State  and  fills  by  appointment  any  State  offices  that 
may  become  vacant,  except  the  office  of  lieutenant  governor 
or  member  of  the  legislature.  Such  sppointments  are  good 
until  the  next  general  election. 

358.  Judicial  Powers.  —  While  a  criminal  case  is  pending 
in  court  the  governor  has  nothing  to  do  with  it ;   but  after 
the  criminal  has  been  convicted  and  sentenced,  the  governor 
may  then  intervene  and  delay  the  execution  of  the  death 
sentence,  or  change  the  death  sentence  to  life  imprisonment, 
or  even  pardon  the  prisoner  outright  and  restore  him  to  full 
political  rights.     He  cannot  pardon  a  person  convicted  of 
treason  or  an  officer  convicted  on  impeachment. 

The  pardoning  power  should  seldom  be  used  except 
where  new  evidence  of  a  convicted  person's  innocence  has 
been  discovered  since  his  trial.  Otherwise  the  will  of  the 
governor  and  not  the  law  of  the  State  would  become  the 
measure  of  justice. 

359.  Legislative    Functions.  —  Under    the    constitution 
the  governor  is  the  official  advisor  of  the  legislature  as 
to  the  conditions  and  needs  of  the  State.     Through  his 
regular  message  at  the  opening  of  each  legislative  session 
he  presents  these  conditions  and  needs  to  that  body.     He 
may  then  urge  them  one  at  a  time  in  a  series  of  special 
messages  as  the  session  goes  on,  backed  up  by  personal 
conferences  and  pressure  on  the  influential  members  of  the 
legislature,   especially   of   the   important   legislative   com- 
mittees.     The     regular    message   is   frequently   a   formal 


THE    STATE    EXECUTIVE    DEPARTMENT  2QQ 

affair,  and  it  is  through  the  special  messages  and  personal 
work  that  a  powerful  governor  is  most  likely  to  get  results. 
All  this  is  a  matter  of  personal,  political,  and  official  in- 
fluence. 

In  the  use  of  the  veto,  however,  the  governor  has  actual 
legal  power.  It  may  be  applied  to  a  whole  bill  or  to 
individual  items  in  an  appropriation  bill.  Such  vetoed 
bills  and  parts  of  bills  can  then  become  law  only  by  being 
passed  over  his  veto  by  a  two-thirds  vote  in  each  house. 

The  governor's  power  to  call  a  special  session  of  the 
legislature  is  particularly  important.  The  very  fact  of  the 
legislature's  being  called  together  in  an  extra  session. to 
consider  specific  measures  mentioned  in  the  governor's 
proclamation  focuses  public  attention  on  those  measures 
and  adds  great  weight  to  his  recommendations  that  they 
be  enacted  into  law. 

But  the  greatest  of  all  the  governor's  legislative  powers 
is  proposed  in  a  constitutional  amendment  submitted  in 
1921  empowering  him  to  submit  to  each  regular  session 
of  the  legislature  a  complete  budget  of  revenues  and  expendi- 
tures for  the  next  two  years,  accompanied  by  a  "  general 
appropriation  bill."  The  legislature  may  reduce  or  strike 
out  items  from  this  bill  but  cannot  otherwise  amend  it 
except  as  to  the  judicial  department,  where  it  may  increase 
items. 

360.  The  Lieutenant  Governor.  —  In  case  of  a  vacancy 
in  the  office  of  governor  because  of  the  governor's  absence 
from  the  State  or  any  other  disability  to  perform  the 
functions  of  the  office,  the  lieutenant  governor  succeeds  to 
all  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  office  and  also  receives  the 
salary  until  the  governor  returns.  If  the  governor  dies, 
the  lieutenant  governor  becomes  governor  for  the  unexpired 


300  THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    NEW    MEXICO 

term.  Otherwise  he  has  no  executive  powers  or  duties 
assigned  to  him  by  the  constitution. 

His  only  regular  function  is  legislative :  he  is  ex  qfficio 
president  of  the  Senate,  but  has  no  vote  except  in  case  of 
a  tie,  when  he  has  a  "  casting  vote  "  to  break  the  tie.  While 
serving  in  this  capacity  he  receives  ten  dollars  a  day  with 
the  same  mileage  allowance  as  members  of  the  Senate. 

In  case  of  the  death  or  absence  of  both  the  governor 
and  the  lieutenant  governor,  the  secretary  of  state  becomes 
governor;  and  after  him  the  president  pro  lempore  of  the 
Senate. 

II.     OTHER    EXECUTIVE    OFFICERS 

361.  Lack  of  Unity.  —  The  governor  is  only  the  chief 
officer  of  the  executive  department.     In  it  are  many  other 
officers  elected  by  the  people  and  neither  responsible  to 
the  governor  nor  in  any  sense  forming  a  cabinet  of  advisers 
and  assistants  in  carrying  out  a  unified  executive  policy. 
This  condition  is  doubtless  a  historical  product  of  the  long 
controversy    in    American    colonial    history    between    the 
popular  assemblies  and  the  royal  governors,  in  which  the 
assemblies  gradually  developed  a  set  of  officers  of  their 
own  to  control  many  of  the  executive  affairs  of  the  colony 
in  order  to  keep  them  out  of  the  royal  governor's  hands. 
Whatever  may  be  its  origin,  the  custom  has  outlived  its 
usefulness,  but  is  still  common  in  the  American  States. 

362.  The    Secretary    of    State.  —  The    constitution    re- 
quires the  secretary  of  state  (i)  to  keep  the  "  Great  Seal 
of  the  State  of  New  Mexico  "  and  affix  it  to  all  commissions 
signed  by  the  governor,  and  (2)  to  serve  as  governor  when 
both  the  governor  and  lieutenant  governor  are  absent  or 
unable  to  perform  the  functions  of  the  office.     His  most 


THE    STATE   EXECUTIVE    DEPARTMENT  301 

important  duties,  however,  are  not  enumerated  in  the 
constitution :  he  is  (3)  the  official  keeper  of  the  executive 
and  legislative  records  of  the  State.  Every  important  official 
act  of  the  governor  is  recorded  in  the  secretary's  office  ;  and 
the  journals  and  other  official  records  of  both  houses  of  the 
legislature,  all  bills  and  resolutions  introduced  and  laws 
passed  are  filed  for  record  and  safekeeping  in  his  office. 
(4)  It  is  his  duty  to  publish  and  distribute  the  laws  passed 
by  each  session  of  the  legislature.  (5)  He  performs  many 
other  duties  of  a  miscellaneous  character,  such  as  issuing 
automobile  licenses. 

363.  The  State  Auditor.  —  The  important  business  of 
handling  the  State's  finances  in  such  way  that  no  one  will 
get  public  money  who  is  not  entitled  to  it  and  that  no 
money  shall  be  paid  out  except  in  strict  accordance  with 
the  provisions  of  appropriation  measures  and  other  laws  is 
in  the  hands  of  the  auditor,  whose  voucher  must  be  issued 
for  all  moneys  to  be  paid  out  of  the  State  treasury. 

364.  The  State  Treasurer.  —  The    treasurer  acts  as  a 
sort  of  banker  to  receive  the  State's  revenues  and   pay 
them  out  on  the  auditor's  warrants  (orders).     The  treasurer 
and  auditor  act  as  a  check  on  each  other  in  the  accounting 
and  financial  system  of  the  State. 

365.  The   Attorney   General.  —  It  is   the   duty  of   the 
attorney  general  to  give  legal  advice  to  the  various  officers 
and  boards  of  the  State  government  and  to  represent  the 
State  in  court  whenever  the  State  is  a  party  to  any  im- 
portant   legal    controversy.     His    advice    to    the    various 
departments  is  given  in  the  form  of  "  opinions  "  on  specific 
points  of  law.     These  "  opinions  "  published  each  year, 
form  an  official  commentary  on  many  of  the  most  important 
phases  of  State  law,  though  they  are  not  final  interpreta- 


302  THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    NEW    MEXICO 

tions  and  binding  on  the  public  as  are  decisions  of  the  courts. 

366.  The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  —  The 
powers  and  duties  of  the  chief  educational  officer  are  dis- 
cussed in  the  chapter  on  The  Public  School  System  (sec. 
389)  and  do  not  need  further  study  here. 

367.  The  Commissioner  of  Public  Lands.1 --The  State 
owns  more  than  twelve  million  acres  of  lands  granted  by 
Congress  or  secured  in  other  ways.     Most  of  these  lands  are 
held  by  the  State  in  trust  for  the  public  schools,  the  State 
institutions,  and  other  purposes  for  which  they  were  granted. 
The  proper  administration  of  this  princely  estate  belonging 
to  our  children  calls  for  a  man  of  both  ability  and  integrity : 
for  it  is  the  land  commissioner's  duty  to  "  select,  locate, 
classify,  and  have  the  direction,  control,  care,  and  disposi- 
tion of  all  public  lands,  under  the  provisions  of  the  acts  of 
Congress   relating   thereto   and   such  regulations   as  may 
be  provided  by  law  "  of  the  State. 

368.  The  State  Corporation  Commission.  —  The  officers 
already  named  —  governor,  secretary,  auditor,  treasurer, 
attorney-general,  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  and 
commissioner  of  public  lands  —  are  described  by  the  con- 
stitution   as    making    up    the    "  executive    department  " ; 
but  the  State  corporation  commission  properly  belongs  in 
the  same  group  because  its  members  are  elected  by  the 
people  and  have  primarily  executive  functions.     It  issues 
all  charters  to  corporations  in  the  State  and  grants  licenses 
to  outside  corporations  to  do  business  in  the  State ;  and  its 
office  is  the  record  office  for  charters  and  every  other  kind 
of  papers  concerning  corporations.     It  has  general  super- 
vision  over   the   rates   and   service   of   railroad,    express, 
telephone,  telegraph,  and  sleeping  car  companies,  and  works 

1  A  constitutional  amendment  submitted  in  1921  abolishes  this  office  and  creates  a  bi- 
partisan State  Land  Commission  of  three  members  appointed  by  the  governor  for  terms 
of  six  years,  one  term  expiring  every  two  years. 


THE    STATE    EXECUTIVE    DEPARTMENT  303 

in  cooperation  with  such  Federal  agencies  as  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission  in  the  regulation  of  these  public 
service  corporations. 

The  commission  consists  of  three  members  elected  for 
terms  of  six  years,  one  commissioner  being  elected  at  every 
general  election.  It  is,  therefore,  a  continuing  body  with 
two  old  members  always  holding  over.  The  commissioners 
receive  a  salary  of  $3,000  a  year  each  arid  may  succeed  them- 
selves indefinitely. 

Prior  to  1880  each  corporation  was  organized  by  a  special 
act  of  the  legislature.  In  that  year  the  first  general  in- 
corporation law  was  passed,  under  the  terms  of  which 
any  group  of  persons  might  form  a  corporation  by  comply- 
ing with  the  provisions  of  the  law.  Now  all  corporations 
must  be  formed  under  the  general  incorporation  laws  of  the 
State. 

369.  Officers  Appointed  by  the  Governor.  —  The  execu- 
tive officers  whose  duties  we  have  been  studying  thus  far 
are  elected  by  the  people ;  but  those  who  are  appointed 
by  the  governor  are  much  more  numerous.  The  following 
are  some  of  the  most  important : 

The  State  Board  of  Public  Welfare,  composed  of  five 
members  appointed  for  terms  of  six  years,  is  a  continuing 
body,  not  more  than  two  of  its  members  being  appointed 
each  two  years.  Its  work  is  conducted  through  a  bureau 
of  child  welfare  and  a  bureau  of  public  health,  each  under  a 
trained  director  appointed  by  the  board. 

The  State  Tax  Commission  is  charged  with  the  duty  of 
(i)  equalizing  assessments  in  the  different  counties  so  that 
the  same  kind  of  property  may  pay  the  same  rate  of  tax  all 
over  the  State,  (2)  helping  to  get  all  the  taxable  property 
of  the  State  actually  on  the  tax  rolls,  and  (3)  assessing 


3  04  THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    NEW    MEXICO 

all  mining  property  and  all  railroads,  telegraphs,  telephones, 
and  other  public  service  corporations  operating  in  more 
than  one  county. 

The  duties  of  the  State  Board  of  Education  and  the  State 
Educational  Auditor  have  been  explained  in  the  chapter  on 
The  Public  School  System  (sees.  388,  399). 

The  Board  of  Medical  Examiners  has  charge  of  the 
licensing  of  physicians. 

The  Traveling  Auditor  is  the  expert  accountant  who 
supervises  the  accounting  systems  and  financial  records  of 
the  various  counties  and  institutions.  He  is  appointed  for 
a  term  of  five  years  and  is  removable  only  for  official  mis- 
conduct. 

The  Bank  Examiner  keeps  check  on  the  condition  of  the 
banks  organized  under  State  law  (all  except  National 
banks)  and  sees  that  they  obey  the  banking  laws  of  the 
State. 

The  State  Engineer  is  an  official  adviser  and  superintend- 
ent of  construction  on  roads,  bridges,  drainage  projects, 
and  other  public  works  paid  for  out  of  State  funds. 

The  Superintendent  of  the  Penitentiary  has  active  charge 
of  the  State  prison  and  all  who  are  confined  in  it. 

The  Mine  Inspector  is  charged  with  the  enforcement  of 
the  State  laws  as  to  safety  appliances  and  good  working 
conditions  in  mines. 

The  governing  boards  of  the  various  State  institutions 
and  other  officers  and  boards  whose  duties  are  fairly  indi- 
cated by  their  titles  are  too  numerous  to  be  listed  here. 

370.  Federal  Agencies  in  the  State.  —  Just  as  the  State 
commissioner  of  public  lands  has  charge  of  the  sale,  leasing, 
and  general  management  of  all  public  lands  belonging  to  the 
State  and  its  institutions,  so  the  United  States  Land  Offices 


THE    STATE    EXECUTIVE    DEPARTMENT  305 

at  Santa  Fe,  Las  Cruces,  Roswell,  Fort  Sumner,  Tucumcari, 
and  Clayton,  each  in  charge  of  a  "  receiver  "  and  a  "  regis- 
ter," have  control  of  the  sale  and  leasing  of  the  public 
lands  belonging  to  the  Federal  government.  The  Forest 
Service  manages  the  National  forests  in  the  State,  leases 
them  for  grazing  purposes,  and  supervises  the  cutting  of 
timber  in  such  a  way  as  to  conserve  the  young  trees  and 
prevent  the  entire  destruction  of  the  forests. 

The  Reclamation  Service  is  engaged  in  promoting  the 
agricultural  development  of  the  State  through  such  irri- 
gation enterprises  as  the  Elephant  Butte  Project  in  the 
lower  Rio  Grande  Valley  and  the  Hondo  and  Carlsbad 
projects  in  the  Pecos  Valley.  The  Weather  Bureau  main- 
tains its  service  in  the  State  primarily  to  serve  the  farming 
and  stock-raising  industries  by  giving  advance  notice  of 
important  changes  in  the  weather.  The  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  at  the  State  College  serves  the  same 
interests  through  experimentation  in  the  handling  of  stock 
and  growing  of  crops  under  conditions  in  the  semi-arid 
Southwest. 

REFERENCES 

Constitution  of  New  Mexico,  Art.  V,  the  Executive  Department;  Art. 
XI,  Corporations  other  than  Municipal ;  Art.  XIII,  Public  Lands. 

New  Mexico  Legislative  Blue  Book  issued  every  two  years. 

J.  H.  FINLEY  and  J.  H.  SANDERSON,  The  American  Executive  and  Exec- 
utive Methods  ("American  State"  Series),  3-184. 

J.  Q.  DEALEY,  Growth  of  American  State  Constitutions,  160-171,  285- 
290. 

A.  N.  HOLCOMBE,  State  Government  in  the  United  States,  280-344. 

W.  B.  MUNRO,  The  Government  of  the  United  States,  431-472. 

P.  S.  REINSCH,  Readings  on  American  Stale  Government,  1-40,  222-327. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved,  That  the  constitution  should  be  so  amended  as  to  lengthen 
the  governor's  term  and  make  him  eligible  for  reelection  indefinitely. 


306  THE    GOVERNMENT   OF    NEW    MEXICO 

Resolved,  That  the  governor  should  be  elected  by  the  people  and  that 
all  other  officers  of  the  executive  department  should  be  appointed  by  the 
governor  and  responsible  to  him. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  TEXT 

1.  Who  compose  the  executive  department?     What  are    their  quali- 
fications?    How  long  do  they  hold  office?     What  salaries  do  they  receive? 

2.  What  are  the  executive  powers  of  the  governor?     How  does  the 
power  of  appointment  give  the  governor  control  of  public  affairs?     What 
is  the  "spoils  system"? 

3.  How  should  the  pardoning  power  be  used?     How  does  the  governor 
exercise  legislative  power? 

4.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  lieutenant  governor?     The  secretary  of 
state? 

5.  What  officials  have  charge  of  State  finances?     What  are  the  duties 
of  each? 

6.  Why  does  the  commissioner  of  public  lands  have  a  particularly  re- 
sponsible position? 

7.  What  is  the  function  of  the  State  corporation  commission? 

8.  Name  some  of  the  important  officers  and  boards  appointed  by  the 
governor  and  give  their  duties. 

9.  What  are  the  purposes  of  the  United  States  Land  Office,  the  Forest 
Service,  the  Reclamation  Service,  and  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion? 


CHAPTER  XXI 
THE   COURTS    OF   THE   STATE 

371.  Introductory.  -  -  The  judicial  power  of   the  State 
is  vested  in 

1.  The  Senate  when  sitting  as  a  court  of  Impeachment. 

2.  The  Supreme  Court. 

3.  The  District  Courts. 

4.  The  Probate  Courts  (one  in  each  county). 

5.  The  Justice  of  the  Peace  Courts  (one  in  each  precinct). 

6.  Any  other  courts  inferior  to  the  district  courts,  which 
the  legislature  may  establish  or  authorize,   such  as   the 
juvenile  courts  (one  in  each  county)  and  the  police  courts 
in  our  cities. 

I.    THE    SUPREME    COURT 

372.  Jurisdiction  of  the  Supreme  Court.  —  At  the  head 
of  the  court  system  of  the  State  stands  the  Supreme  Court 
with  a  sort  of  supervising  control  over  all  the  lower  courts. 
It  has  both  original  and  appellate  jurisdiction.1 

i.  The  Supreme  Court  has  original  jurisdiction  in 
only  two  classes  of  cases :  (i)  in  a  quo  warranto  proceeding 
against  a  State  officer  or  State  board ;  that  is,  in  a  suit 
brought  against  an  officer  or  board  to  make  him  show  by 
what  warrant,  or  right,  he  holds  his  office,  or  why  he  should 
not  be  removed  from  it  by  the  court ;  and  (2)  in  a  mandamus 

1  A  court  has  original  jurisdiction  when  a  case  may  be  begun  or  originated  in  it;  it  has 
only  appellate  jurisdiction  if  the  case  must  be  begun  in  a  lower  court  and  brought  up  to  it 
by  appeal. 

307 


308  THE    GOVERNMENT   OF    NEW    MEXICO 

proceeding  against  such  officers ;  that  is,  in  a  suit  asking 
the  court  to  issue  a  specific  order  or  command  to  them  to 
do  certain  specific  things  or  perform  certain  duties. 

2.  Its  appellate  jurisdiction  extends  to  all  final  judgments 
and  decisions  of  the  district  courts,  and  to  such  other 
orders  and  decisions  of  those  courts  as  the  legislature  may 
prescribe.  This  is  the  field  of  the  court's  real  power.  It 
is  a  rare  thing  indeed  for  a  case  to  be  begun  before  the 
Supreme  Court,  but  cases  are  constantly  being  brought  up 
by  appeal  from  the  district  courts  to  have  important  points 
of  law  settled  by  its  decision.  For  the  full  and  complete 
exercise  of  its  jurisdiction  it  may  issue  all  writs  and  other 
orders  necessary  for  hearing  and  determining  the  cases 
brought  before  it. 

The  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  is  final  in  every  case 
brought  before  it  involving  only  the  laws  of  New  Mexico ; 
but  if  it  denies  any  power  or  authority  claimed  under 
Federal  law,  the  defeated  party  may  appeal  to  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States. 

373.  Sessions  of  the  Supreme  Court.  —  The  Supreme 
Court  has  but  one  term  a  year,  beginning  on  the  second 
Wednesday  in  January  and  continuing  throughout  the 
year,  with  such  recesses  as  the  justices  may  think  proper. 
But  we  must  avoid  the  error  of  thinking  of  this  as  a  whole 
year's  public  session  such  as  we  see  now  and  then  for  a  short 
period  of  time  in  each  county.  The  Supreme  Court  holds 
these  open,  public  sessions  for  hearing  oral  arguments 
by  attorneys  in  important  cases  before  it  three  times  each 
year,  beginning  on  the  second  Wednesday  in  January  and 
the  first  Mondays  in  May  and  September  and  continuing  as 
long  as  business  demands.  During  the  remainder  of  the 
year  it  is  "  in  session  "  only  in  the  sense  that  the  justices 


THE    STATE   EXECUTIVE   DEPARTMENT  309 

are  in  their  offices  in  the  State  Capitol  and  ready  to  transact 
proper  judicial  business   '  in  chambers  "  at  any  time. 

374.  Supreme  Court  Judges.  —  The  Supreme  Court  is 
composed  of  three  justices  elected  for  terms  of  eight  years 
each,  only  one  being  elected  at  a  time.     They  must  be  at 
least  thirty  years  of  age  and  "  learned  in  the  law/'  and 
must  have  resided  in  the  State  as  practicing  lawyers  or 
judges  at  least  three  years  before  election.     No   one  of 
them  is  elected  as  chief  justice,  but  the  one  having  the 
shortest  term  to  serve  is,  because  of  that  fact,  chief  justice 
of  the  court.     That  means  that  the  oldest  (and  therefore 
most  experienced)  of  the  three  under  the  regular  eight- 
year  term  will  be  the  head  of  the  court  at  any  given  time, 
and  that  the  younger  members  will  be  associate  justices. 
A  judge  elected  to  fill  an  unexpired  term  never  becomes 
chief  justice. 

The  supreme  judges  receive  a  salary  of  $6,000  a  year 
and  are  eligible  to  succeed  themselves  indefinitely.  The 
legislature  might,  if  there  were  any  necessity  for  it,  increase 
the  number  of  judges  to  five,  which  is  the  limit  set  by  the 
constitution. 

A  vacancy  in  the  Supreme  Court  is  filled  by  the  governor's 
appointment  until  the  next  general  election,  when  a  justice 
will  be  elected  to  fill  the  unexpired  term. 

375.  Other  Officers  of  the  Court.  —  The  judges  of  the 
Supreme  Court  appoint  a  clerk  to  prepare  the  "  docket  " 
or  official  list  of  cases  coming  before  the  court,  to  issue 
the  court's  orders,  and  to  keep  the  official  record  of  business 
transacted;    a    bailiff   to  serve  writs  and  carry  out  other 
orders  of  the  court  in  much  the  same  fashion  that  a  sheriff 
executes  the  orders  of  the  courts  in  his  county;    and  a 
reporter  to  prepare  for  publication  the  permanent  official 


3IO  THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    NEW    MEXICO 

record  of  every  case  heard  and  decided  by  the  court. 
These  published  reports  are  the  highest  official  explanation 
of  the  law  of  the  State  on  the  points  that  have  come  before 
the  court. 

II.     THE  DISTRICT  COURTS 

376.  Judicial    Districts.  —  The    State    is    divided    into 
nine   judicial   districts    containing    the    following    groups 
of  counties :  — 

I.  Santa  Fe,  Rio  Arriba,  San  Juan,  and  McKinley. 

II.  Bernalillo  and  Sandoval. 

III.  Dona  Ana,  Otero,  Lincoln,  and  Torrance. 

IV.  San  Miguel,  Mora,  and  Guadalupe. 
V.  Eddy,  Chaves,  and  Lea. 

VI.  Grant,  Luna,  and  Hidalgo. 

VII.  Socorro,  Valencia,  Sierra,  and  Catron. 

VIII.  Taos,  Colfax,  Union,  and  Harding. 

IX.  Curry,  De  Baca,  Quay,  and  Roosevelt. 

377.  Importance   of  the   District   Courts.  —  The   great 
volume  of  legal  business  of  the  State  is  transacted  in  the 
district    courts.     They    have    practically    an    unlimited 
original  jurisdiction  to  hear  and  determine  both  civil  and 
criminal  cases,  and  appellate  jurisdiction  over  all  actions 
begun  in  the  probate  courts  and  justice  of  the  peace  courts 
below.     Not  only  are  most  of   the  civil  suits  brought  in 
the  district  courts  and  most  of  the  prosecutions  for  crime 
begun  in  them,  but  the  large  majority  of  all  cases  are  finally 
settled  there.    Yet  an  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  district 
court  in  any  case  may  be  taken  to  the  State  Supreme  Court. 
Each  district  court  holds  two  regular  sessions  a  year  at  the 
county  seat  of  each  county  in  the  district.     The  district 


THE    STATE   EXECUTIVE    DEPARTMENT  31! 

judge  is  ex  qfficio  judge  of  the  juvenile  court  in  each  county 
of  his  district. 

378.   District    Judges    and    Attorneys. — There   is    one 


JUDICIAL   DISTRICTS 


district  judge  elected  for  each  of  the  nine  judicial  districts. 
His  term  of  office  is  six  years,  his  qualifications  the  same  as 
the  qualifications  for  justices  of  the  Supreme  Court  (sec. 
374),  and  he  must  be  a  resident  of  the  district  in  which  he 
is  elected. 


312  THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    NEW    MEXICO 

There  is  one  district  attorney  in  each  district.  It  is  his 
duty  to  conduct  the  prosecution  of  all  persons  accused  of 
criminal  offenses  against  the  laws  of  the  State  and  to  act 
as  legal  adviser  to  the  various  county  officers  in  his  district. 
He  is  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years  and  must  be  a  person 
"  learned  in  the  law,"  a  resident  of  the  State  for  three 
years  next  preceding  his  election,  and  a  resident  of  the 
district  at  the  time  of  election. 

The  district  judges  receive  from  the  State  treasury  a 
salary  of  $4,500  a  year,  with  an  additional  $750  as  juvenile 
court  judges;  the  district  attorneys,  $3,000  except  in  the 
sixth  district,  including  Grant,  Luna,  and  Hidalgo  counties, 
where  the  salary  is  only  $2,750.  The  district  attorney  also 
receives  his  salary  from  the  State  treasury;  but  only 
$1,000  of  it  is  contributed  by  the  State.  The  remainder  is 
paid  into  the  State  treasury  by  the  different  counties  in 
amounts  fixed  by  law. 

A  vacancy  in  the  office  of  district  judge  or  district  attor- 
ney is  filled  in  the  same  manner  as  vacancies  in  the  Supreme 
Court,  that  is,  by  the  governor's  appointment  until  the 
next  general  election,  when  an  officer  is  chosen  for  the  un- 
expired  term. 

III.  COUNTY  AND  PRECINCT  COURTS 

379.  Probate  Courts.  —  Each  county  has  a  probate 
court  whose  special  business  it  is  to  probate  (prove)  wills 
that  are  brought  in  to  be  recorded,  to  appoint  administra- 
tors of  the  estates  of  people  who  die  without  making  a  will, 
to  appoint  guardians  for  orphan  children,  and  to  examine 
the  accounts  and  control  the  actions  of  executors  and 
administrators  of  estates.  There  are  six  regular  sessions 
a  year.  Appeal  may  be  taken  from  any  decision  of  the 
probate  court  to  the  district  court. 


THE    COURTS    OF    THE    STATE  313 

Probate  judges  are  county  officers  elected  for  a  period  of 
two  years.  They  receive  a  salary  of  $800  in  first-class 
counties ;  $600  in  second-class  counties ;  $400  in  third- 
class  counties ;  and  $300  in  fourth-  and  fifth-class  counties 
(sec.  402).  A  vacancy  in  the  office  of  probate  judge  is 
filled  temporarily  by  the  county  clerk  until  the  county 
commissioners  appoint  a  person  for  the  unexpired  term. 

380.  Justice  of  the  Peace   Courts.  —  In  each  precinct 
there  is  a  justice  of  the  peace  court  for  hearing  small  civil 
suits  and  trying  persons  accused  of  petty  misdemeanors.  1 
The  limit  of  punishment  by  a  justice  of  the  peace  is  a  fine 
of  $100  or  six  months'  imprisonment  in  the  county  jail  or 
both  fine  and  imprisonment;  but  the  justice  also  has  con- 
siderable power  as  a  "  committing  magistrate  "  to  hold 
accused  persons  for  action  by  the  grand  jury  and  the  district 
courts. 

In  civil  suits  also  he  is  restricted  to  hearing  small  con- 
troversies over  money  or  personal  property  not  over  $200  in 
amount  and  may  not  hear  any  kind  of  suit  concerning 
title  to  land,  title  to  public  office,  or  other  important 
business.  In  other  words,  the  justice  of  the  peace  is 
strictly  a  "  judge  in  small  matters  " ;  and  appeals  may  be 
taken  from  his  judgments  to  the  district  court. 

A  civil  suit  in  the  justice's  court  must  be  tried  before 
a  jury  if  either  party  requests  it;  and  in  a  criminal  case 
the  accused  person  may  demand  a  jury.  In  either  case  the 
jury  will  consist* of  six  voters  of  the  precinct. 

381.  Civil  and  Criminal  Law.  —  The  laws  concerning  the 
personal  and  business  relations  of  one  person  to  another 
in  such  matters  as  contracts,  deeds,  mortgages,  and  the 

1  Crimes  are  classified  as  felonies  or  misdemeanors.  A  felony  is  a  crime  punishable  with 
death  or  imprisonment  in  the  State  penitentiary;  any  crime  receiving  a  smaller  punishment 
is  a  misdemeanor. 


314  THE  GOVERNMENT   OF    NEW   MEXICO 

ownership  of  real  and  personal  property,  but  not  affecting 
the  general  peace  and  safety  of  the  community,  are  called 
civil  laws;  and  lawsuits  concerning  any  of  these  matters 
are  called  civil  cases. 

Those  laws,  on  the  other  hand,  which  provide  for  the 
protection  of  the  State  and  society  from  disorder  through 
the  prevention  and  punishment  of  crime  are  called  criminal 
laws.  They  provide  for  the  punishment  of  stealing,  libel, 
slander,  murder,  and  numerous  other  offenses  against  the 
dignity  of  the  State  and  the  safety  of  the  people.  Suits 
brought  by  the  State  for  the  violation  of  these  laws  are 
called  criminal  cases. 

382.  Civil  Cases.  —  In  a  civil  case  two  parties  (individ- 
uals,  groups,   or  corporations)   are  in  dispute  over  some 
rights  or  powers  under  the  law,  which  they  have  not  been 
able  to  settle  between  themselves.     One  of  them  appeals 
to  the  court  to  hear  the  facts  of  the  controversy  and  settle 
it  for  them  according  to  law.     The  party  that  first  takes 
the  matter  into  court  is  called  the  plaintiff;    the  other  is 
known  as  the  defendant.     Neither  is  a  criminal  under  arrest. 
They  are  simply  parties  to  a  private  business  controversy 
which  the  court  is  asked  to  settle ;    and  there  may  be  no 
jury  at  all,  or  if  there  is  one,  it  merely  passes  on  disputed 
questions  of  fact.     Each  party  pays  his  own  lawyer  unless 
the  court  orders  the  other  party  to  pay  the  costs  of  the 
trial.     The  State  is  not  a  party  to  the  suit  at  all ;  it  simply 
provides  the  facilities  for  settling  it  according  to  law. 

383.  Criminal  Cases.  —  In  a  criminal  case  the  whole 
procedure  is  different.     The  man  who  commits  a  crime  is 
endangering  the  peace  and  safety  of  the  community.     The 
State  must,  therefore,  become  a  party  to  the  affair  and 
deal  with  him  in  such  a  way  as  to  discourage  criminal  con- 
duct. 


THE    COURTS   OF   THE    STATE  315 

For  example,  John  Doe  assaults  a  man  by  striking  him 
or  steals  money  from  him ;  the  injured  person  or  some  one 
else  under  oath  reports  the  facts  to  a  justice  of  the  peace. 
The  justice  issues  a  warrant  for  the  arrest  of  Doe  and  brings 
him  before  the  justice  of  the  peace  to  answer  for  a  crime 
against  the  State.  If  there  were  persons  who  saw  the  act 
they  are  summoned  as  witnesses.  Doe  may  demand  a 
jury  of  six  men  and  have  a  lawyer  to  defend  him ;  and  the 
State  may  be  represented  by  the  district  attorney  to  prose- 
cute him.  If  Doe  is  guilty  and  the  punishment  which 
the  law  prescribes  for  his  offense  is  not  more  than  a  $100 
fine  or  six  months'  imprisonment  in  the  county  jail  or 
both,  the  justice  of  the  peace  may  pass  sentence  on  him. 
If  the  legal  punishment  is  greater  than  that,  all  that  the 
justice  can  do  is  to  commit  Doe  to  jail  to  await  the  action 
of  the  grand  jury  and  a  trial  at  the  next  session  of  the 
district  court  in  the  county. 

If  the  justice  imposes  a  fine  on  Doe  or  sentences  him 
to  imprisonment,  Doe's  lawyer  may  appeal  the  case  to  the 
district  court  for  a  new  trial,  if  he  thinks  the  trial  before 
the  justice  of  the  peace  has  not  been  fair  or  that  the  decision 
is  not  according  to  the  law. 

384.  Trial  by  Jury.  —  At  the  next  term  of  the  district 
court  Doe's  case  will  come  up  for  an  entirely  new  trial 
by  jury  as  if  there  had  been  no  trial  before  the  justice  of  the 
peace.  A  trial  jury,  or  petit  (small)  jury,  consists  of 
twelve  men  who  hear  all  the  evidence  in  the  case  and  are 
sworn  to  render  a  verdict  (true  statement)  of  "  guilty  " 
or  "  not  guilty  "  according  to  the  law  as  explained  by  the 
judge  and  the  facts  proved  in  this  particular  trial.  Whether 
or  not  the  man  is  known  to  be  an  habitual  criminal  will  have 
little  weight  in  determining  the  verdict  of  the  jury  as  to 


316  THE    GOVERNMENT    OF   NEW    MEXICO 

whether  he  is  guilty  of  this  particular  offense;  though  if 
he  is  found  guilty,  it  may  have  very  great  weight  in  deter- 
mining whether  the  judge  will  give  him  a  light  sentence 
or  the  heaviest  punishment  the  law  allows. 

Here  again,  as  in  the  former  trial  before  the  justice  of 
the  peace,  after  Doe  has  been  convicted  and  sentenced,  his 
lawyer  may  appeal  the  case  to  the  State  Supreme  Court 
if  he  thinks  the  district  judge  has  made  any  serious  errors 
in  the  conduct  of  the  trial,  such  as  ruling  out  important 
evidence  or  making  a  faulty  interpretation  of  the  law  in  his 
instructions  to  the  jury.  But  in  the  Supreme  Court  there 
is  no  new  trial.  That  court  merely  decides  the  disputed 
points  of  law  and  procedure  and  either  "  affirms  "  or 
"  reverses  "  the  decision  of  the  district  court.  If  it  affirms 
the  decision,  the  case  is  closed  and  Doe  must  accept  his 
punishment.  If  it  reverses  the  decision,  he  will  get  a  new 
trial  in  the  same  district  court. 

385.  The  Grand  Jury.  —  If  in  the  case  just  described 
Doe  had  not  been  brought  to  trial  before  a  justice  of  the 
peace,  he  would  probably  have  been  brought  before  the 
district  court  by  an  indictment  or  presentment  by  a  grand 
(large)  jury. 

A  grand  jury  is  a  jury  of  eighteen  to  twenty-four  men 
whose  duty  it  is  to  hear  evidence  concerning  reported  cases 
of  crime  or  acts  contrary  to  the  public  welfare.  These 
reports  usually  go  to  the  grand  jury  in  the  form  of  a  bill 
of  indictment  drawn  up  by  the  district  attorney.  If  the 
grand  jury's  investigation  brings  out  no  evidence  of  guilt, 
they  return  the  bill  of  indictment  marked  "  not  a  true  bill." 
But  if  there  is  probability  that  the  accused  person  is  guilty, 
they  return  the  indictment  marked  "  a  true  bill,"  and  he 
has  to  stand  trial  before  a  jury  in  court.  At  least  eighteen 


THE   COURTS   OF  THE   STATE  317 

members  of  a  grand  jury  must  be  present  to  transact 
business,  and  it  takes  the  consent  of  twelve  members  to 
return  "  a  true  bill."  Information  as  to  cases  of  law- 
breaking  of  which  members  of  the  grand  jury  have  knowl- 
edge may  be  furnished  to  the  court  without  waiting  for  a 
bill  of  indictment.  Such  a  report  is  called  a  presentment 
and  usually  leads  to  an  investigation  under  a  bill  of  indict- 
ment. 

IV.      FEDERAL   COURTS 

386.   New   Mexico    a   Federal    District.  —  As   we    live 

under  Federal  as  well  as  State  law,  we  have  in  New  Mexico 
Federal  courts  as  well  as  State  courts.  New  Mexico  is  one 
judicial  district  in  the  eighth  Federal  circuit,  and  regular 
terms  of  the  United  States  district  court  are  held  at  Santa 
Fe  beginning  on  the  first  Mondays  in  April  and  October. 
These  courts  are  ordinarily  held  by  the  one  Federal  district 
judge  who  resides  in  the  State.  Cases  before  them  are 
conducted  for  the  government  by  the  United  States  dis- 
trict attorney ;  and  the  orders  of  the  court  are  carried  out 
by  the  United  States  marshal,  whose  duties  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  sheriff  in  a  county. 

All  these  officers  of  the  Federal  court  are  appointed  by 
the  President  and  paid  by  the  United  States  government. 
The  district  judge  holds  office  during  good  behavior  and 
receives  a  salary  of  $7,500  a  year.  The  United  States 
marshal  and  attorney  are  appointed  for  terms  of  four  years 
and  receive  a  salary  of  $4,500  a  year  each. 

REFERENCES 

Constitution  of  New  Mexico,  Art.  VI,  Judicial  Department. 
S.  E.  Baldwin,  The  American  Judiciary  ("  American  State  "  Series,  125 
-136,  152-285. 


318  THE   GOVERNMENT  OF   NEW  MEXICO 

J.  Q.  DEALEY,  Growth  of  American  State  Constitutions,  172-181,  200- 
292. 

A.  N.  HOLCOMBE,  State  Government  in  the  United  States,  345-393. 

W.  B.  MUNRO,  The  Government  of  the  United  States,  498-500. 

P.  S.  REINSCH,  Readings  on  American  State  Government,  140-221. 

QUESTIONS   FOR   DEBATE 

Resolved,  That  the  trial  jury  of  twelve  men  should  be  abolished  and  all 
cases  tried  before  a  jury  of  five  men  trained  in  the  law. 

Resolved,  That  the  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  should  be  appointed 
by  the  governor  instead  of  being  elected  by  the  people. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  TEXT 

1.  In  what  courts  is  the  judicial  power  of  the  State  vested? 

2.  Do  you  see  any  good  reason    why  the  Supreme  Court  should  have 
but  little  original  jurisdiction? 

3.  How  does  the  chief  justice  get  his  office?     What  salary  do  the  su- 
preme judges  receive  ? 

4.  Why  are  the  district  courts  important?     How  many  of  them  are 
there?     What  salary  do  the  judges  receive? 

5.  What  are  the  qualifications  of  supreme  and  district  judges? 

6.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  district  attorneys? 

7.  What  are  the  functions  of  the  probate  courts?     The  justice  of  the 
peace  courts  ? 

8.  Distinguish  felony  from  misdemeanor. 

9.  If  the  maid  steals  the  silver  teapot,  how  may  the  mistress  proceed 
against  her?     Is  this  a  civil  or  criminal  case ?     Why?    Will  the  grand  jury 
have  anything  to  do  with  it?     The  petit  jury?     Why? 


CHAPTER   XXII 
THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  l 

387.  Introduction.  —  In  the  United  States  we  have  no 
Federal  system  of  education.     The  nearest  approach  to 
such  a  system  is  found  in  the  agricultural  colleges  of  the 
country.     The  facts  concerning  the  control  of  the  State 
school  system  fall  logically  under    the  powers  and  duties 
of   the  various  officials  of   the  State,   county,   and  local 
government.     But  they  can  be  more  clearly  and  systemat- 
ically set  forth  as  a  unit ;   and  the  supreme  importance  of 
public  education  in  a  democracy  justifies  the   treatment 
of  the  subject  in  a  separate  chapter. 

388.  The    State    Board    of    Education.  —  The    general 
control   and   supervision  of   the  public   school   system  is 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  State  board  of  education,  subject 
to  the  constitution  and  laws  of  the  State.     The  board  con- 
sists of  seven  members.     The  governor  and  superintendent 
of  public  instruction  are  ex  officio  president  and  secretary. 
The  other  five  members  are  appointed  by  the  governor  with 
the  approval  of  the  State  Senate  for  terms  of  four  years 
each,  two  being  appointed  at  one  time  and  three  at  another 
in  the  odd-numbered  years,  so  that  the  board  is  a  contin- 
uing body  with  some  of  its  members  going  out  and  others 
coming   in   every   two  years.      One  member  must    be  a 
county  superintendent  of  schools ;  one,  the  head  of  a  State 

1  Reread  Chapter  XIV,  especially  sees.  258-275. 

319 


320  THE    GOVERNMENT   OF   NEW  MEXICO 

educational  institution;  one  other,  a  practical  educator; 
and  the  remaining  two  may  come  from  any  field  of  ac- 
tivity. Not  more  than  three  of  the  five  appointed  mem- 
bers may  belong  to  the  same  political  party. 

The  board  has  charge  of  the  certification  of  teachers, 
the  management  of  teachers'  institutes,  prescribing  the 
course  of  study,  and  the  adoption  of  a  uniform  series  of 
textbooks  (not  to  be  changed  oftener  than  once  in  six 
years)  for  the  common  schools.  It  holds  four  regular 
meetings  each  year  and  such  special  meetings  as  its  business 
may  require.  The  members  receive  a  compensation  of  five 
dollars  a  day  for  their  services  and  an  allowance  of  five 
cents  a  mile  each  way  for  traveling  expenses. 

389.  The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  —  The 
State  superintendent  of  public  instruction  is  elected  by 
popular  vote  for  a  term  of  two  years  at  each  general 
election.  He  must  be  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
thirty  years  of  age,  a  resident  of  the  State  for  the  five 
years  next  preceding  his  election,  and  a  trained  and  expe- 
rienced educator.  He  receives  a  salary  of  $3,000  a  year, 
and  has  an  assistant,  appointed  by  himself. 

The  State  superintendent  is  secretary  and  chief  executive 
officer  of  the  State  board  of  education.  On  his  shoulders 
falls  the  burden  of  putting  into  effective  operation  its 
general  plans  and  policies.  On  his  training,  experience, 
and  wise  leadership  depends,  to  a  very  large  extent,  the 
efficient  and  harmonious  development  of  the  whole  public 
school  system.  He  interprets  the  school  law  and  super- 
vises its  enforcement  throughout  the  State,  visits  the  various 
counties  and  institutions,  holds  teachers'  meetings,  and 
confers  with  county  superintendents  and  school  boards. 
Four  times  a  year  —  in  March,  June,  September,  and 


THE   COURTS   OF   THE    STATE 


321 


December  —  he  apportions  the  State  current  school  fund 
to  the  counties  according  to  the  number  of  children  of 
school  age  (five  to  twenty-one  years). 

Nobody  but  an  educational  expert  of  the  highest  order 
should  ever  be  elected  to  this  high  office ;  he  should  be 
provided  with  an  adequate  salary ;  and  his  election  should 
be  placed  in  the  spring  with  other  school  elections  in 


CONSOLIDATEE    RURAL    SCHOOL    IN    CURRY    COUNTY 

order  to  get  it  away  from  the  partisan  influence  of  the  gen- 
eral election.  His  term  of  office  should  be  lengthened  to 
at  least  four  years 

390.  The  County  Board  of  Education.  —  The  county  unit 
law  places  the  administration  of  the  rural  schools  in  each 
county  under  the  control  of  the  county  board  of  education 
and  the  county  superintendent  of  schools.  This  board  is 
composed  of  five  members.  The  county  superintendent  is 
ex  officio  its  chairman  and  executive  officer.  The  other 


322  THE   GOVERNMENT  OF   NEW   MEXICO 

four  members  are  appointed  by  the  district  judge  for  terms 
of  four  years,  two  being  appointed  in  each  odd-numbered 
year,  so  that  the  board  is  a  continuing  body.  Not  more 
than  two  of  the  appointed  members  may  belong  to  the 
same  political  party. 

Subject  to  the  general  authority  of  the  State  board 
of  education,  the  county  board  has  complete  control  of 
all  rural  schools  and  all  schools  in  unincorporated  towns 
and  villages.  It  provides  schoolhouses,  grounds,  equipment, 
and  supplies,  changes  district  lines,  consolidates  old  dis- 
tricts and  creates  new  ones,  holds  the  title  to  all  school 
property  of  the  county,  apportions  funds  to  the  different 
districts,  pays  out  all  school  moneys,  and  has  full  power  to 
approve  or  disapprove  teachers  employed  by  the  school 
directors. 

The  actual  carrying  out  of  these  numerous  functions 
of  the  board  lies  with  its  executive  officer,  the  county 
superintendent,  while  the  board  meets  from  time  to  time 
and  passes  upon  his  actions. 

391.  The  County  Superintendent.  —  The  center  and 
head  of  the  county  school  system  is  the  county  superintend- 
ent of  schools.  He  is  elected  at  each  general  election  for  a 
term  of  two  years,  must  be  a  legally  qualified  voter  of  the 
county,  and  may  succeed  himself  but  one  time.  He  re- 
ceives a  salary  of  $2,000  in  first-class  counties,  $1,800  in 
second-class  counties,  $1,500  in  third-class  counties,  and 
$1,300  in  fourth-class  counties  (sec.  402). 

His  control  over  the  schools  of  the  county  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  State  superintendent  over  those  of  the  whole 
State.  He  is  the  county's  educational  executive  and  the 
spokesman  of  the  county  board  of  education.  All  schools 
in  the  county,  except  those  in  incorporated  cities,  towns,  and 


THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  323 

villages,  are  under  his  direct  charge  and  supervision.  It 
is  his  duty  to  visit  them,  conduct  teachers'  meetings, 
supervise  the  work  in  all  its  phases,  and  enforce  the  com- 
pulsory attendance  and  vaccination  laws. 

The  same  changes  in  the  constitution  needed  for  the 
State  superintendent  (sec.  389)  apply  with  equal  force  to 
the  office  of  county  superintendent. 

392.  School   Directors.  —  Each   school   district   in   the 
county  has  a  board  of  three  directors  elected  for  a  term 
of  three  years  each,  one  director  being  elected  each  year 
on  the  second  Monday  in  April.     They  have  immediate 
charge  and  responsibility  for  the  schoolhouse  and  other 
property  of  the  district,  take  the  school  census,  collect  the 
poll  tax,  aid  in  enforcing  the  compulsory  attendance  law, 
and  assist  the  county  board  of  education  in  preparing  the 
annual  budget.     Their  power  to  employ  teachers  is  subject 
to  the  approval  or  disapproval  of  the  county  board  of 
education. 

393.  County  High  Schools.  —  Any  county  may  estab- 
lish one  or  more  county  high  schools  providing  free  instruc- 
tion for  all  children  of  the  county  who  are  of  high-school 
grade.     It  is  a  local  option  arrangement  by  which  each 
county  decides  for  itself  at  a  special  election. 

If  a  county  high  school  is  located  in  an  incorporated 
city,  town,  or  village,  it  is  governed  by  the  board  of  educa- 
tion of  the  district.  If  it  is  located  in  a  rural  district, 
the  county  board  of  education  has  charge.  In  either  case 
the  governing  board  makes  all  general  rules  and  regulations, 
employs  teachers,  and  provides  proper  courses  of  study, 
which  must  include  work  in  agriculture,  manual  training, 
home  economics,  and  commercial  branches.  The  board 
may  also  bond  the  district  in  which  the  county  high  school 


324  THE    GOVERNMENT  OF   NEW    MEXICO 

is  located  to  purchase  grounds,  erect  buildings,  and  provide 
proper  equipment. 

Such  county  high  schools  are  supported  by  a  general 
county  tax  of  not  more  than  two  mills  on  the  dollar  over 
and  above  the  eighteen  mills  allowed  for  the  general  county 
school  fund.  If  a  county  establishes  more  than  one  county 
high  school, the  high-school  fund  is  apportioned  among  them 
each  year  according  to  their  record  of  attendance  for  the 
preceding  year. 

394.  Cities,  Towns,  and  Villages.  —  The  schools  in 
incorporated  cities,  towns,  and  villages  are  separate  and 
distinct  from  the  rural  schools  and  practically  independent 
of  the  county  superintendent  and  county  board  of  educa- 
tion. They  are  governed  by  a  board  of  education  of 
five  members  elected  for  terms  of  four  years  from  the 
municipality  at  large  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  April  of  the 
odd-numbered  years,  two  being  elected  at  one  election  and 
three  at  the  next.  An  exception  to  this  rule  should  be 
noted  for  a  few  places  incorporated  under  special  acts, 
where  the  whole  board  is  elected  at  one  time,  on  the 
second  Tuesday  in  April.  A  member  of  the  board  of 
education  must  be  a  qualified  voter  who  has  resided  in  the 
city  or  town  for  at  least  two  years  and  must  not  be  a  member 
of  the  city  or  town  council. 

These  boards  employ  city  and  town  superintendents  and, 
through  them,  conduct  the  schools.  Incorporated  cities 
have  the  power  to  issue  certificates  to  their  teachers  with- 
out requiring  them  to  secure  a  State  certificate.  Any 
incorporated  municipal  district  may  by  special  election 
bond  itself  for  the  erection  of  school  buildings  and  improve- 
ment of  school  property  up  to  six  per  cent  of  its  total 
taxable  property. 


THE    PUBLIC   SCHOOL   SYSTEM  325 

395.  Vocational    Education.  —  The    State    has    a    co- 
operative arrangement  with  the  United  States  government 
for  vocational  training  in  agriculture,  home  economics,  and 
trades  and  industries  in  high  schools  and  other  institutions 
of  the  State  and  for  the  training  of  teachers  of  those  subjects 
under  the  provisions  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act  of  Congress. 
This  work  is  under  the  joint  control  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment and  the  State  board  of  education  acting  as  the  State 
board  for  vocational  education,  and  is  under  the  active 
supervision  of  the  State  director  of  industrial  education 
appointed   by   the   State   board  .and   working  under   the 
authority  and  immediate  direction  of  the  State  superintend- 
ent of  public  instruction. 

396.  Compulsory   Attendance.  —  The   law   requires   all 
children  in  the  State  between  six  and  sixteen  years  of  age 
to  attend  the  public  school  during  the  entire  length  of  the 
term  in  their  district  (which  must  be  at  least  seven  months 
for  ungraded  schools  and  nine  months  for  graded  schools1) 
unless  they  are  attending  a  private  school  approved  by  the 
State    board    of    education.     There    are    two    important 
exceptions   to   this   rule :     attendance   is   not   compulsory 
for  children  living  over  three  miles  from  the  school  unless 
there  is  a  public  conveyance ;    and   those  who   are   from 
fourteen  to  sixteen  years  of  age  may  be  excused  from  full- 
time  attendance  if  they  are  regularly  employed.     If  there 
are  as  many  as  fifteen  such  cases  in  any  one  district,  a  part- 
time  school  must  be  established  for  them  under  rules  and 
regulations  of  the  State  board. 

397.  School   Revenues.  —  The   State   has   two   general 
school  funds :    the  permanent  school  fund  and  the  current 
school  fund.     The   permnent   fund   is   derived    from   the 

'A  graded  school  is  one  having  four  or  more  teachers. 


326  THE    GOVERNMENT   OF   NEW   MEXICO 

sale  of  public  school  lands  (sections  2,  16,  32,  and  36  in 
each  township)  and  from  the  sale  of  other  public  lands  in 
the  State,  five  per  cent  of  which  goes  into  the  school  fund. 
This  permanent  fund  is  invested  by  the  State,  and  only 
the  interest  on  it  may  be  spent  from  year  to  year.  At  the 
present  time  (1920)  the  whole  fund  amounts  to  only  about 
$5,000;  but  as  population  increases  and  land  values  rise 
the  fund  should  grow  to  considerable  proportions,  for  the 
State  still  owns  more  than  eight  million  acres  of  public 
school  lands. 

The  current  school  fund  is  derived  from  (i)  interest 
on  the  permanent  fund,  (2)  rentals  received  from  school 
lands,  (3)  a  general  State  levy  of  one  half  mill  on  all  taxable 
property,  and  in  a  small  way  from  (4)  fines  and  forfeitures 
imposed  by  the  courts  for  the  violation  of  law,  and  (5)  from 
the  sale  of  property  left  by  people  who  die  without  heirs  and 
without  making  a  will.  This  fund,  to  be  spent  for  the 
annual  maintenance  of  the  schools,  is  apportioned  among 
the  counties  by  the  State  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion four  times  each  year  (sec.  389). 

The  county  school  budget  is  made  by  the  county  superin- 
tendent with  the  assistance  of  the  district  directors  and 
the  approval  of  the  county  commissioners.  The  county 
school  fund  is  derived  from  (i)  the  State  current  school 
fund,  (2)  a  general  county  school  tax  of  not  over  eighteen 
mills  on  the  dollar,  full  valuation,  of  all  taxable  property 
in  the  county,  and  (3)  in  many  of  the  counties  from  Na- 
tional Forest  revenues,  twenty-five  per  cent  of  which 
goes  into  the  school  fund  of  the  counties  in  which  the 
forests  are  located.  It  is  distributed  to  all  school  dis- 
tricts, including  incorporated  and  unincorporated  cities, 
towns,  and  villages,  by  the  county  superintendent  on  the 


THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL  SYSTEM  327 

basis  of  their  total  census,  and  it  must  be  sufficient  to 
maintain  a  term  of  at  least  seven  months  in  every  ungraded 
school  and  nine  months  in  every  graded  school.  The  poll 
tax  also  belongs  to  the  district  fund  and  is  collected  by  the 
clerk  of  the  board  of  directors.  All  other  taxes  are  collected 
by  the  county  collector. 

All  rural  school  grounds,  buildings,  and  permanent 
equipment  are  paid  for  out  of  district  funds  raised  by 
special  district  tax  levied  by  the  county  commissioners, 
or  by  bonds  voted  by  the  district  for  that  purpose  and 
not  exceeding  six  per  cent  of  the  assessed  valuation  of  the 
taxable  property  of  the  district.  For  these  purposes 
incorporated  cities,  towns,  and  villages  may  bond  themselves 
in  the  same  way  and  to  the  same  amount. 

398.  State  Educational  Institutions.  —  The  State  con- 
stitution confirmed  the  following  institutions,  which  had 
already  been  established  by  the  Territory : 

University  of  New  Mexico,  Albuquerque. 

New  Mexico  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts, 
State  College. 

New  Mexico  School  of  Mines,  Socorro.  . 

New  Mexico  Military  Institute,  Roswell. 

New  Mexico  Normal  University,  East  Las  Vegas. 

New  Mexico  Normal  School,  Silver  City. 

Spanish-American  Normal  School,  El  Rito. 

New  Mexico  Asylum  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  Santa  Fe. 

New  Mexico  Institute  for  the  Blind,  Alamogordo. 

The  constitution  places  these  institutions  under  the 
direct  control  of  the  State  through  boards  of  five  regents 
appointed  by  the  governor,  with  the  approval  of  the  State 
Senate,  for  a  term  of  four  years.  Not  more  than  three 
of  them  may  belong  to  the  same  political  party.  By 


328  THE    GOVERNMENT   CF   NEW   MEXICO 

statute  the  governor  and  State  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  are  ex  officio  advisory  members  of  all  these 
boards  without  the  right  to  vote  or  hold  office. 

There  is  a  needed  change  which  the  legislature  could 
make  without  the  necessity  for  constitutional  amendment. 
The  present  arrangement  by  which  all  the  members  of 
each  board  go  out  of  office  at  the  same  time  and  a  whole  new 
board  comes  in  every  four  years  is  thoroughly  bad  and 
should  be  so  changed  that  only  a  part  of  each  board  would 
be  appointed  at  any  one  time,  as  has  already  been  done 
with  the  State  and  county  boards  of  education.  The 
boards  of  regents  would  then  become  continuing  bodies  with 
less  possibility  of  sudden  political  influence  detrimental  to 
the  welfare  of  the  institutions. 

The  income  of  the  State  institutions  is  primarily  from 
direct  appropriations  made  by  the  State  legislature  and  in 
a  smaller  way  from  rentals  on  lands  granted  to  them  by 
the  United  States  government,  except  in  the  case  of  the 
Agricultural  College,  which  receives  its  principal  support 
from  the  Federal  government. 

399.  The  Educational  Auditor.  —  All  levies  for  school 
purposes  in  counties,  cities,  towns,  and  villages  are  under 
the  supervision  and  control  of  the  State  educational  auditor 
appointed  by  the  governor  for  an  indefinite  term  of  office 
and  removable  by  him  at  any  time.  All  budgets  and  esti- 
mates of  county,  district,  and  city  boards  of  education, 
as  well  as  of  State  educational  institutions,  must  be  sub 
mitted  to  the  educational  auditor  and  approved  or  revised 
by  him  before  any  expenditures  of  public  money  may 
be  made  for  school  or  institutional  purposes. 


THE   PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  329 

REFERENCES 

Reports  of  the  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 

Constitution  of  New  Mexico,  Art.  XII,  Education. 

Public  School  Laws  compiled  by  the  State  Department  of  Education. 

New  Mexico  Statutes  Annotated  (Code)  of  1915,  Chapter  XCIX, 
Schools  and  School  Districts ;  CI,  State  Institutions ;  and  Session  Laws  of 
later  date. 

P.  S.  REINSCH,  Readings  on  American  Stale  Government,  338-363. 

J.  H.  Vaughan,  History  of  Education  in  New  Mexico,  Chapters  VII-IX. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved,  That  the  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction  should  be 
appointed  by  the  governor  for  a  long  term. 

Resolved,  That  sufficient  county  and  local  funds,  with  State  aid,  should 
be  provided  to  maintain  a  nine-months  school  in  every  district. 

Resolved,  That  New  Mexico  should  have  as  good  schools  as  any  State 
in  the  Union. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  TEXT 

1.  What  are  the  functions  of  the  State  board  of  education?     Who  are 
the  present  members?     How  are  they  chosen? 

2.  Why  is  the  office  of  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction  es- 
pecially important?     What  changes  should  be  made  concerning  it? 

3.  How  are   the  county  common  schools  managed  and  supported? 
County  high  schools?     City  schools? 

4.  What  provision  is  made  for  vocational  training? 

5.  What  is  the  rule  concerning  compulsory  attendance?     Is  it  enforced 
in  your  district?     Why? 

6.  Name  and  locate  the  State  educational  institutions.     How  are  they 
supported?     How  are  they  managed?     How  could  the  management  be 
improved  ? 


CHAPTER   XXIII 

COUNTY  GOVERNMENT 

400.  Origin  of  County  Government.  —  When  the  Spanish 
colonists  in  New  Mexico  began  to  develop  a  system  of  local 
government,  they  grouped  their  scattered  settlements  and 
villages  into  counties,  districts,  or    "  jurisdictions  "  (sec. 
150).     In  like  manner  the  English  colonists  who    settled 
on  the  fertile  lands  of  Virginia,  the  Carolinas,  and  other 
southern   States   scattered   out  on  large  plantations   and 
adopted    the   county   as   their   unit   of   local   government 
because  it  was  large  enough  to  include  a  great  many  planta- 
tions. 

When  these  Southerners  began  to  move  westward  they 
occupied  successive  belts  of  sparsely  settled  agricultural 
and  grazing  country  and  transplanted  to  them  the  county 
type  of  government,  not  only  because  it  was  the  type  to 
which  they  were  accustomed,  but  because  it  was  the  only 
one  suited  to  southwestern  conditions.  In  New  Mexico 
the  two  systems  met.  Our  county  type  of  government, 
therefore,  owes  its  origin  and  permanence  to  both  Spanish 
and  English  sources. 

401.  Functions   of   County   Government.  —  Unlike   the 
State,  which  has  its  own  large  sphere  of  independent  action 
which  cannot  be  changed  by  the  Federal  government,  the 
counties  are  not  independent  units  with  powers  of  -their  own, 
but  convenient  political  divisions  for  the  execution  of  State 
law.     They   were   created   by    the   legislature,    and    their 

330 


COUNTY   GOVERNMENT 


331 


powers,  duties,  and  even  their  territory  may  be  changed  by 
the  legislature.  The  government  of  a  county  must  execute 
the  laws  of  the  State  throughout  its  whole  area;  collect 
taxes  —  State,  county,  and  local ;  preserve  order ;  make  the 
necessary  provision  for  public  education;  maintain  a 

•••••••••••I 


CHAVES  COUNTY  COURT  HOUSE 

system  of  public  highways  and  bridges ;    and  perform  any 
other  duties  placed  upon  it  by  State  law. 

402.    Classification  of  Counties  and  County  Salaries.  - 
For  determining  the  salaries  of  county  officers  the  legis- 
lature of  1915  classified  the  counties  of  the  State  into  five 
classes  on  the  basis  of  the  assessed  valuation  of  the  taxable 
property  in  each  county,  as  follows : 

First  Class,  $14,000,000  or  over.  Second  Class,  from  $8,250,000 
to  $14.000,000.  Third  Class,  from  $6,500,000  to  $8,250,000.  Fourth 
Class,  from  $4,750,000  to  $6,500,000.  Fifth  Class,  less  than  $4,750,000. 


332  THE    GOVERNMENT   OF   NEW   MEXICO 

The  official  salary  schedule  is  as  follows : 

I          II         III         IV         V 
County  Commissioners      .     .    $   800    $   600    $   400    $   300    $    300 

Probate   Judge       800         600         400         300         300 

Superintendent  of  Schools     .      2,000      1,800      1,500      1,400       1,300 

Assessor 3,ooo      2,200      2,400      1,750      1,200 

Treasurer       . 3,ooo      2,200      2,400      1,750       1,200 

Sheriff        3,500      2,700      2,400       1,750      1,500 

Clerk 3,ooo      2,200      2,400      1,750      1,500 

Surveyor,  $10  a  day  for  not  more  than  150  days  a  year  in  first  and 

second  class  counties,  75  days  in  third  and  fourth  class  counties. 

50  days  in  fifth  class  counties. 

In  addition  to  these  salaries,  the  assessor,  treasurer, 
and  clerk  each  receive  $1,000  a  year  for  deputy  and  clerk 
hire;  and  the  sheriff  is  allowed  deputy  hire  of  $1,500  in 
first-  and  second-class  counties,  $800  in  third-class  counties, 
$700  in  fourth-class  counties,  and  $500  in  fifth-class  counties. 
Besides,  the  sheriffs  in  the  one  large  county  of  Socorro 
and  in  the  three  border  counties  of  Dona  Ana,  Luna,  and 
Hidalgo  may  each  have  an  additional  deputy  at  a  salary  of 
$1,200;  and  if  any  one  of  these  border  counties  is  in  the 
second  class,  its  sheriff  receives  $3 ,000  instead  of  the  regular 
salary  of  $2,700  in  other  counties  of  that  class. 

A  reclassification  of  counties  on  the  above  basis  is  made 
by  the  State  auditor  in  January  after  each  presidential 
election  (1921,  1925,  1929,  etc.),  on  which  the  salary 
schedule  will  be  based  for  the  next  four  years. 

403.  The  Board  of  County  Commissioners.  —  The  old 
prefect  system  of  county  government  in  use  here  in  Mexican 
times,  which  put  the  government  of  the  counties  largely 
under  the  control  of  the  governor's  appointees  (sec.  150), 
was  continued  during  the  first  thirty  years  of  the  American 
period.  But  in  1876,  the  same  year  in  which  the  Anglo- 
American  Common  Law  was  adopted  (sec.  352),  the  prefect 
system  was  abolished  and  the  more  democratic  Ameircan 
board  of  county  commissioners  put  in  its  place.  The 


COUNTY   GOVERNMENT  333 

board  consists  of  three  members  and  holds  four  regular 
sessions  each  year  and  such  special  sessions  as  the  county 
business  may  require. 

Like  most  other  county  officers,  the  board  of  county 
commissioners  has  primarily  executive  duties  to  perform. 
Its  chief  work  lies  in  carrying  out  the  general  laws  of  the 
State  within  the  county.  It  is  also  a  sort  of  county  legis- 
lature with  power  (a)  to  levy  county  taxes  and  authorize 
the  spending  of  county  money,  and  (6)  to  provide  for  the 
building  and  repair  of  county  roads,  bridges,  courthouses, 
jails,  and  other  county  buildings.  It  also  serves  as  the 
canvassing  board  to  make  the  official  count  of  the  votes 
of  the  county  in  every  election. 

404.  County  Judicial  Officers. — The  functions  of  the 
county  probate  judge  (sec.  379)  in  the  handling  of  wills, 
the  settling  up  of  estates,  and  the  guardianship  of  orphan 
children ;  and  the  jurisdiction  of  the  justice  of  the  peace 
(sec.  380)  in  each  precinct  over  minor  civil  suits  and  petty 
criminal  offenses  have  been  explained  in  the  chapter  on  The 
Courts  of  the  State. 

One  important  duty  of  the  justice  of  the  peace,  however, 
remains  to  be  considered  —  the  holding  of  an  inquest 
(hearing  or  inquiry)  over  any  person  found  dead  in  his 
precinct.  Whenever  any  person  is  found  dead  under 
conditions  which  indicate  that  the  death  may  have  been  the 
result  of  crime,  or  which  are  even  open  to  suspicion,  it 
is  the  duty  of  the  local  justice  of  the  peace  to  summon  a 
special  jury  of  inquest  (commonly  known  as  a  coroner's 
jury]  composed  of  six  citizens  of  the  precinct  to  assist  him 
in  investigating  all  the  circumstances  that  may  throw  any 
light  on  the  cause  of  the  death.  This  is  not  a  trial  jury, 
but  a  special  sort  of  grand  jury  with  only  a  single  case  to 


334  THE   GOVERNMENT  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

investigate.  It  may  summon  witnesses  and  compel  them  to 
give  evidence.  If  it  finds  evidence  pointing  to  some  person 
or  persons  as  having  probably  committed  the  crime,  it  draws 
up  a  written  verdict  to  that  effect.  A  warrant  will  then  be 
issued  and  the  accused  persons  arrested  and  held  for  investi- 
gation by  the  grand  jury. 

The  constable  is  a  peace  officer  of  the  precinct  with  duties 
similar  to  those  of  the  sheriff  in  the  whole  county.  On 
the  direction  of  the  justice  of  the  peace  he  arrests  persons 
accused  of  crime,  summons  witnesses  and  jurors,  and 
carries  out  other  orders  of  the  justice's  court.  Justices  of 
the  peace  and  constables  receive  such  fees  as  are  prescribed 
by  law,  but  no  regular  salary. 

405.  County  School  Officers. -- The  powers  and  duties 
of  the  county  board  of  education,  the  county  superintend- 
ent of  public  instruction,  and  the  district  boards  of  school 
directors  have  been  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  The  Public 
School  System  (sees.  390-392)  and  do  not  need  to  be  re- 
peated here. 

406.  County  Financial  Officers.  —  The  assessor's  busi- 
ness is  to  get  all  of  the  taxable  property  in  the  county 
on  the  tax  rolls  at  a  fair  valuation  so  that  every  man  may 
bear  his  just  share  of  the    expense   of  government.     It  is 
then  the  duty  of  the  treasurer,  who  is  ex  officio  collector, 
to  collect  all  taxes,  have  the  care  and  keeping  of  all  county 
funds,  and  to  pay  out  public  money  only  on  the  authority 
of  the  county  commissioners  or  the  county  board  of  educa- 
tion, or  as  otherwise  provided  by  law.     If  the  treasurer  fails 
to  collect  part  of  the  taxes,  that  throws  a  heavier  burden 
on  those  who  do  pay  and  is  as  unjust  as  if  the  assessor  had 
made  an  unfair  valuation  of  their  property.     The  county 
treasurer  collects  not  only  the  county  and  district  taxes, 
but  also  the  county's  portion  of  the  State  tax. 


COUNTY    GOVERNMENT  335 

407.  The   Sheriff.  —  The  leading  peace  officer  of  each 
county  is  the  sheriff,  whose  duty  it  is  (i)  to  arrest  and 
bring  into  court  all  persons  accused  of  crime ;  (2)  to  summon 
persons  wanted  in  court  as  witnesses,  jurymen,  or  for  any 
other  purpose ;    (3)  to  hold  prisoners  in  the  county  jail  or 
take  them  to  the  State  penitentiary  as  required  by  law  or 
by  the  orders  of  the  court;    (4)  to  sell  the  property  of 
persons  who  refuse  to  pay  fines  or  costs  according  to  the 
orders  of  the  courts  or  to  pay  their  taxes ;   (5)  to  carry  out 
all  other  orders  of  the  courts;    and  (6)  to  keep  the  peace, 
that  is,  to  suppress  all  disorder  and  disturbance  without 
waiting  for  any  court  to  act.     In  the  performance  of  these 
duties  he  may  have  regular  deputies  to  assist  him  and  may 
use  force  if  necessary,  even  to  the  extent  of  calling  out  all 
the  citizens  of  the  county  to  assist  him  in  the  enforcement 
of  the  law. 

408.  The    County    Clerk.  —  All    county    officers    have 
occasion   to  keep   records   of    their  own   official   actions ; 
but  the  county  clerk  is  the  county's  official  recorder  and 
keeper  of  public  records. 

1.  He  must  keep  a  complete  record  of  all  deeds,  mort- 
gages,  and  other  important  legal  papers  which  the  law 
requires  to  be  a  matter  of  public  record. 

2.  He  issues  marriage  licenses  and  records  certificates  of 
marriage  ceremonies. 

3.  He  is  ex  officio  clerk  of  the  district    court  for  his 
county.     In  this  capacity  he  keeps  a  full  and  complete 
record  of  all  business  transacted  by  the  district  court  in 
his  county,  records  all  judgments  and  decrees  of  the  court 
and  prepares  the  docket,  or  official  list  of  cases,  for  each 
session. 

4.  He  is  ex  officio  clerk  of  the  probate  court  and  the 


336  THE   GOVERNMENT  OF   NEW  MEXICO 

juvenile  court  of  the  county,  with  duties  similar  to  those  in 
connection  with  the  district  court. 

5.  He  is  ex  officio  clerk  of  the  board  of   county  com- 
missioners and  keeps   their  seal,   makes  up   the  minutes 
of  each  meeting,  keeps  all  their  books  and  records,  and 
signs  every  order  of  the  board  for  the  payment  of  public 
money. 

6.  Because  he  is  the  keeper  of  all  these  public  records 
he  is  also  the  proper  officer  to  furnish  official  copies  of  any 
of  them. 

409.  The   County   Surveyor.  —  The   official   surveys   of 
all  lands  and  boundary  lines  in  the  county  ordered  by  the 
county  commissioner  thing  are  made  by  the  county  surveyor. 

410.  Election    and    Term    of    Office.  —  The    American 
principle  of  "  rotation  in  office  "  has  been  carried  to   the 
extreme  in  New  Mexico.     County   officers  are  elected  at 
the  general  election  in  November  of  the  even-numbered 
years  and  serve  for  a  term  of  two  years,  beginning  the  first 
day  of  the  following  January.     After  serving  two  consecu- 
tive terms  they  are  not  eligible  to  hold  any  county  office 
for  the  next  two  years.     Justices  of  the  peace  and  con- 
stables (precinct  officers)  are  elected  on  the  first  Monday 
in  January  of  each  odd-numbered  year  and  serve  two  years, 
beginning  the  first  Monday  in  February. 

411.  Filling    Vacancies.  — A  vacancy  in  the  office  of 
county  commissioner  is  filled  by  the  governor's  appoint- 
ment for  the  unexpired  term.     The  county  commissioners 
fill  all  vacancies  that  occur  in  any  other  county  or  precinct 
offices.     This  of  course  does  not  apply  to  members  of  the 
legislature,  who  are  not  county,  but  district,  officers  (sec. 
34o). 


COUNTY    GOVERNMENT  337 

REFERENCES 

J.  A.  FAIRLIE,  Local  Government  in  Counties,  Towns,  and  Villages  ("  Ameri- 
can State"  Series),  3-137. 

W.  B.  MUNRO,  The  Government  of  the  United  States,  535-559. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved,  That  the  southern  county  type  of  government  was  better  suited 
to  New  Mexican  conditions  than  the  New  England  township  system. 

Resolved,  That  the  term  of  county  officers  should  be  lengthened  to  four 
years. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  TEXT 

1.  From  what  two  sources  is  our  county  type  of  local  government  de- 
rived?    How  was  it  influenced  by  geography? 

2.  What  are  the  functions  of  county  government?     How  are  the  coun- 
ties classified  ? 

3.  Name  your  county  officers  and  give  the  duties  and  salary  of  each. 

4.  If  a  man  is  found  dead  by  the  roadside,  what  official  action  will  be 
taken?     May  the  grand  jury  have  anything  to  do  with  the  case?    The 
petit  jury?     Why? 

5.  What  changes  can  you  suggest  to  improve  county  government? 


CHAPTER   XXIV 

CITIES,  TOWNS,  AND  VILLAGES 

412.  Municipal  Government.  —  When  the  people  in  a 
compact  and  thickly  settled  district  organize  themselves 
for  the  better  control  of  their  local  affairs  under  the  pro- 
visions of  State  law,  we  call  the  new  organization  an  in- 
corporated village,  town,  or  city  —  or  a  municipal  corpora- 
tion.    The  object  of   these   municipal   corporations  is   to 
furnish  more  effective  control  over  the  common  interests 
of  the  community  than  can  be  secured  through  the  ordi- 
nary county  government.     Streets  need  to  be  laid  out  and 
improved,   sewer  systems  and  sanitary  regulations  must 
be  provided,  water  and  light  plants  are  needed,  and  better 
schools  are  desired.     All  these  things  call  for  more  common 
activity,    more  local  regulation,  the  raising  of  more  money 
by  local  taxation,  and  the  employment  of  more  officers. 
To  carry  out  these  common  undertakings  villages,  towns, 
and  cities  are  incorporated. 

413.  Towns  and  Villages.  —  Any  community  of  a  hun- 
dred and  fifty  or  more  people  living  in  an  area  of  not  less 
than  forty  acres    nor   more  than  nine  square  miles  may 
organize  as  an  incorporated  village  under  a  board  of  six 
trustees  composed  of  a  mayor,  a  clerk,  or  recorder,  and 
four  other  trustees  elected  from  the  village  at  large  for 
a  term  of  two  years.     The  trustees  may  also  provide  by  an 
ordinance  for   the  election  of  a  marshal,   treasurer,   and 
such  other  officers  as  are  needed.     If  the  entire  village  is  in 

338 


CITIES,   TOWNS  AND   VILLAGES  339 

one  precinct,  the  justice  of  the  peace  of  that  precinct 
will  be  the  judge  before  whom  all  violations  of  local  ordi- 
nances will  be  tried.  If  it  is  in  more  than  one  precinct, 
the  town  board  of  trustees  may  designate  one  justice  of 
the  peace  to  try  all  offenders. 

When  an  incorporated  village  reaches  a  population  of 
five  hundred,  it  has  all  the  powers  and  privileges  of  an 
incorporated  town  without  the  necessity  for  reincorporating. 
When  the  population  numbers  fifteen  hundred,  it  may  in- 
corporate as  a  town. 

The  board  of  trustees  in  a  town  or  village  is  the  legisla- 
tive body  which  passes  all  rules  and  ordinances  for  the 
local  government.  The  mayor  presides  at  all  meetings, 
votes  on  all  questions,  appoints  all  non-elective  officers 
with  the  consent  of  the  trustees,  and  designates  the  em- 
ployees to  perform  particular  duties.  The  town  clerk 
has  no  vote  but  keeps  an  accurate  record  of  all  business 
transacted  and  all  rules  and  ordinances  passed  by  the 
trustees. 

414.  Method  of  Incorporation.  —  Prior  to  1884  any  town 
in  New  Mexico  that  wanted  to  incorporate  had  to  secure 
its  charter  by  a  special  act  of  the  legislature.  As  late  as 
1876  there  were  only  three  such  incorporated  places  in  the 
Territory.  That  method  was  very  difficult:  everything 
hinged  on  political  favor.  Hence,  just  as  a  general  law 
for  the  organization  of  business  corporations  had  taken 
the  place  of  the  old  special-act  plan  in  1876  (sec.  368),  so 
in  1884  a  general  municipal  corporation  law  was  passed, 
under  which  any  place  meeting  the  legal  requirements 
might  incorporate  as  a  village,  town,  or  city.  That  law 
with  some  amendments  is  still  in  force. 

The  process  of  incorporation  as  a  town  or  village  is 


34°  THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

very  simple.  A  petition  (signed  by  half  the  voters  for 
a  village,  and  by  two  hundred  for  a  town  or  city)  is  pre- 
sented to  the  county  clerk ;  the  county  commissioners 
then  order  a  special  election ;  and  the  result  of  the  election 
settles  the  question  of  incorporation. 

415.  Cities.  —  Any  town  or  village  having  a  population 
of  three  thousand  may  become  an  incorporated  city.     Or, 
when  its  population  reaches  two  thousand,  the  board  of 
trustees  may  petition  the  governor  to  proclaim  it  a  city ; 
and  on  the  issuance  of  such  proclamation  by  the  governor 
the  place  becomes  a  city  without  waiting  to  reach  the 
three    thousand    population    ordinarily   required   for   the 
organization  of  a  city  government. 

416.  City  Government.  —  The  city  council  is  composed 
of  a  mayor  elected  from  the  city  at  large  and  four  aldermen 
elected  one  from  each  of  the  four  wards  into  which  the  city 
is  divided.     The  aldermen  are  elected  for  a  term  of  four 
years ;   the  mayor,  city  clerk,  and  treasurer,  for  two  years. 
The  council  (mayor  and  aldermen)  passes  all  ordinances  for 
the  government  of  the  city.     The  mayor  has  no  vote  except 
in  case  of  a  tie,  when  he  has  a  casting  vote  to  break  the 
tie.      He  may  veto  any  ordinance,  but    it  may  then  be 
passed  over  his  veto  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  council. 
He  appoints,  with  the  consent  of  the  council,  all  appointive 
officers  of  the  city,  such  as  marshal,  police,  city  attorney, 
and  others.      He  must  also  sign  all  commissions,  licenses, 
and  permits  of  every  kind  granted  by  the  council. 

The  city  council  appoints  one  of  the  justices  of  the 
peace  in  the  city  as  police  judge.  In  his  court  all  persons 
who  violate  the  city  ordinances  are  tried.  He  may  punish 
offenders  by  a  fine  and  imprisonment  or  both,  provided 
that  the  imprisonment  shall  not  be  for  a  longer  period 


CITIES,  TOWNS  AND  VILLAGES  341 

than  ninety  days  nor  the  fine  more  than  $200.  But  an 
appeal  may  be  taken  from  any  decision  of  the  police  judge 
to  the  district  court. 

417.  Filling   Vacancies.  —  If   the  office  of  mayor  in  a 
city,  town,  or  village  becomes  vacant,  the  council  or  trustees 
fill  it  by  appointment  until  the  next  municipal  election. 
If  there  is  a  vacancy  in  the  council  or  board  of  trustees, 
the  mayor  fills  it  by  appointment  with  the  consent  of  the 
other   members,    until    the   next   municipal   election.     In 
cities  having  the  commission  form  of  government  (sec.  419) 
a  vacancy  in  the  office  of  mayor  or  member  of  the  com- 
mission is  filled  by  the  remaining  members  of  the  com- 
mission. 

418.  Municipal  Elections.  —  In  order  to  eliminate  par- 
tisan politics  as  much  as  possible  from  city,  town,  and 
village  elections  they  are  not  held  at  the  time  of  the  general 
election  in  November,  but  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  April 
of  the  even-numbered  years.     The  newly  elected  officers 
go  into  office  on  the  first  Monday  in  May  following. 

419.  Commission  Form  of  Government.  —  There  are  so 
many  elective  officers  in  cities  and  towns,  each  more  or 
less  independent  of  the  other,  that  it  is  very  difficult  for 
the  public  to  fix  the  responsibility  for  bad  government. 
One  remedy  for  this  is  to  have  few  elective  officials  and 
hold   them  responsible  for  the  entire  government  of    the 
city  —  the  principle  of  the  "short  ballot." 

The  legislature  of  1913  authorized  any  city,  town,  or 
village  in  the  State  to  adopt  a  commission  form  of  govern- 
ment with  an  elective  commission  composed  of  a  mayor  and 
two  commissioners  chosen  for  a  term  of  two  years,  with 
power  to  appoint  and  remove  at  will  all  administrative 
officers  —  clerk,  attorney,  treasurer,  engineer,  physician, 


342  THE   GOVERNMENT  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

marshal,  and  others.  This  would  fix  responsibility  defi- 
nitely on  the  three  commissioners  and  give  them  complete 
control  over  their  subordinates.  Then  in  1917  the  legisla- 
ture went  a  step  further  and  authorized  cities  having  a 
population  of  ten  thousand  to  adopt  a  charter  providing 
any  sort  of  government  they  desire  so  long  as  it  is  in  con- 
formity with  the  constitution. 

420.  Commission-Manager  Government.  —  In  1919,  at 
the  request  of  the  city  of  Albuquerque,  the  legislature 
passed  a  general  statute  authorizing  and  controlling  the 
commission-manager  form  of  government  for  cities  of  ten 
thousand  inhabitants. 

The  commission  consists  of  five  commissioners  chosen 
from  five  districts  into  which  the  city  is  divided,  but  voted 
for  by  the  whole  city,  the  ballot  containing  the  names  of  all 
candidates  from  each  district  without  any  party  designa- 
tion. They  are  chosen  for  terms  of  four  years  and  serve 
without  pay.  Two  are  elected  at  one  election  and  three 
at  the  next.  The  city  election  must  not  be  on  general 
election  day  in  November.  This  commission  elects  one  of 
its  number  mayor  for  a  term  of  two  years.  They  pass  all 
ordinances  for  the  government  of  the  city,  designate  a 
justice  of  the  peace  as  police  judge,  employ  a  manager 
to  nan  the  government,  and  fill  vacancies  in  the  commission 
by  appointment  until  the  next  city  election. 

Finally,  in  1921,  the  legislature  authorized  cities  having 
from  3,000  to  10,000  population  to  adopt  the  commission- 
manager  form  of  government  with  a  commission  of  three 
elected  by  the  city  at  large  from  the  three  districts  into 
which  it  is  divided  for  that  purpose.  They  are  elected 
on  the  second  Monday  in  January  of  each  odd-numbered 
year  for  a  term  of  two  years.  In  all  other  respects  the 


CITIES,  TOWNS  AND  VILLAGES  343 

government  of  these  cities  is  like  that  of  a  commission- 
manager  city  with  over  10,000  population. 

The  city  manager  employed  by  the  commission  is  the 
actual  executive  head  of  the  whole  city  government.  He 
is  chosen  without  reference  to  politics,  but  solely  because 
of  his  training,  executive  ability,  and  fitness  for  handling 
the  complex  problems  of  governing  a  modern  city.  Into 
his  hands  is  placed  practically  absolute  power  over  every 
department  of  the  city's  affairs,  subject  only  to  general 
ordinances  and  the  public  law  of  the  State.  He  employs 
all  officers  and  has  full  power  to  dismiss  them.  If  he  has 
incompetent  men  in  charge  of  the  police  department,  fire 
department,  or  any  other  division  of  the  government, 
he  is  responsible,  and  the  commission  and  the  general 
public  know  it. 

421.  Initiative,  Referendum,  and  Recall.  —  Cities  of 
10,000  population  having  the  commission-manager  form  of 
government  may  use  the  newest  devices  of  democratic  con- 
trol over  their  affairs  —  the  initiative,  referendum,  and 
recall. 

If  the  people  wish  a  certain  ordinance  passed  and  the 
commission  refuses  to  do  it,  they  may  propose  it  by  an 
initiative  petition  signed  by  twenty  per  cent  of  the  voters, 
compelling  the  commission  to  pass  the  ordinance  or  submit 

it  to  a  popular  vote.  Bancroft  LlfcffBl 

Ordinances  passed  by  the  co»wmssion  are^-alsdi  subject 
to  a  popular  referendum.  They  ordinarily  go  into  effect 
thirty  days  after  passage,  but  may  be  suspended  until 
approved  by  popular  vote  if  a  petition  asking  for  such 
referendum  is  signed  by  twenty  per  cent  of  the  voters. 

The  recall  applies  to  all  elective  officers  of  the  city. 
If  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  voters  sign  a  petition  for  the  recall 


344  THE   GOVERNMENT  OF   NEW  MEXICO 

of  a  commissioner,  a  recall  election  must  be  held.  If  the 
majority  of  votes  cast  at  such  election  is  for  recalling  him, 
he  is  dismissed  from  office  and  the  vacancy  filled  by  the 
remaining  commissioners  until  the  next  city  election. 
Otherwise,  he  continues  in  office. 

REFERENCES 

J.  A.  FAIRLIE,  Local  Government  in  Counties,  Towns,  and  Villages  ("Ameri- 
can State"  Series),  141-212. 

F.  J.  GOODNOW,  City  Government  in  the  United  States  ("American  State" 
Series). 

W.  B.  MUNRO,  The  Government  of  the  United  States,  560-635. 

W.  B.  MUNRO,  The  Government  of  American  Cities. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved,  That  the  commission-manager  form  of  city  government  is 
superior  to  that  by  mayor  and  aldermen. 

Resolved,  That  the  constitution  should  be  so  amended  as  to  apply  the  re- 
call to  all  elective  officers  of  the  State  and  county  governments. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  TEXT 

1.  Why  do  communities  desire  to  incorporate  themselves  as  towns  and 
cities? 

2.  What  is  the  process  of  incorporation?     Why  was  the  old  method 
bad? 

3.  How  are  cities  and  towns  governed?     Why  are  municipal  elections 
not  held  with  the  general  elections? 

4.  What  are  the  advantages  of  the  commission  form  of  city  government? 
Of  the  commission-manager  form? 

5.  Were  the  laws  of  1917  and  1919  (sees.  419,  420)  "special  legislation" 
(sec.  343)  for  the  city  of  Albuquerque,  though  in  the  form  of  general  statutes? 
No  other  city  had  10,000  population.     What  change  was  made  in  1921  ? 

6.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  initiative?    The  referendum?    The  re- 
call? 


CHAPTER  XXV 

PENAL    AND    CHARITABLE  INSTITUTIONS 
I.    PENAL    INSTITUTIONS 

422.  The  State  Penitentiary.  — The  oldest  of  the  State's 
penal   and  charitable  institutions  is   the  penitentiary   at 
Santa  Fe,  founded  in  1882  to  take  proper  care  of  a  new 
and  increasing  element  of  "  hard  characters  "  that  drifted 
in  with  the  railroads  in  the  early  eighties  and  some  who 
were  already  here  and  in  need  of  more  secure  quarters. 

The  penitentiary  is  in  charge  of  a  superintendent 
appointed  by  the  governor  with  the  approval  of  the  senate 
and  serving  for  a  term  of  two  years  at  an  annual  salary 
of  $2,400.  The  general  policy  of  the  institution  is  under 
the  direction  of  a  board  of  five  penitentiary  commissioners 
appointed  by  the  governor,  with  the  consent  of  the  senate, 
for  a  term  of  four  years.  Not  more  than  three  of  them 
may  belong  to  the  same  political  party. 

423.  Punishment  and  Reformation.  —  Under  the  con- 
stitution   (Art.   XX,    Sec.    15),    "The    penitentiary   is    a 
reformatory  and  an  industrial  school  "  as  well  as  an  institu- 
tion for  the  punishment  of  crime.     Blacksmithing,  brick- 
making,  the  manufacture  of  shoes  and  clothing,  and  other 
trades  are  taught  in  the  penitentiary  and  regularly  fol- 
lowed by  the  convicts.     Such  products  of  these  industries 
as  are  not  used  in  the  institution  are  sold  to  the  highest 
bidder  and  the  proceeds  applied  toward  the  running  ex- 

345 


346  THE   GOVERNMENT  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

penses,  except  that  the  net  earnings  of  a  prisoner  who  has  a 
dependent  family  are  paid  over  to  the  family  for  their  sup- 
port. No  convicts  can  be  leased  or  hired  out  to  work  for 
private  individuals  or  corporations.  They  must  be  at  all 
times  under  public  supervision  and  control  by  penitentiary 
officers.  A  premium  is  set  on  good  conduct  and  habits  of 
steady  work  and  obedience  to  prison  regulations  by  the 
provision  of  law  which  allows  a  prisoner  to  shorten  his  term 
of  service  by  good  behavior. 

This  is  as  far  as  the  law  has  gone  in  mitigating  the  hard- 
ships of  prison  life,  and  is  probably  as  far  as  it  ought  to 
go  for  the  present.  It  provides  a  just  and  humane  prison 
system  without  adopting  any  of  the  "  soft  fads  "  of  senti- 
mental reformers.  And  we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the 
fundamental  fact  that  the  protection  of  society  through 
punishment  or  the  fear  of  punishment  is  one  of  the  prime 
objects  of  a  prison  system.  Take  away  that  fear  and  crime 
will  multiply. 

The  county  jail  is  a  place  for  the  serving  of  short  sentences 
imposed  for  minor  offenses  and  for  holding  offenders  to 
await  trial. 

424.  The  State  Reform  School.  —  The  convicts  in  the 
county  jails  and  the  penitentiary  are  chiefly  people  grown 
up  and  mature,  many  of  them  hardened  criminals;  and 
these  institutions  are  organized  on  that  basis.  .  They  are, 
therefore,  wholly  unsuited  for  the  imprisonment  of  mere 
youths  who  have  been  convicted  of  first  offenses,  if  there 
is  to  be  any  prospect  of  reforming  the  offenders  and  restor- 
ing them  to  useful  citizenship.  Such  a  work  must  be  done 
under  a  different  environment  and  by  a  different  sort  of 
institution. 

To  meet  this  need  the  legislature  of  1903  authorized  the 


PENAL   AND   CHARITABLE    INSTITUTIONS  347 

establishment  of  a  Reform  School  for  the  "  confinement, 
instruction,  and  reformation  of  juvenile  offenders  against 
the  laws  of  the  State,"  who  are  under  eighteen  years  of  age 
and  have  been  convicted  of  any  offense  less  than  a  felony 
punishable  with  life  imprisonment  in  the  penitentiary. 

The  school  was  actually  established  at  Springer  in 
1909,  and  young  persons  of  idle,  vicious,  or  vagrant  habits, 
as  well  as  those  actually  convicted  of  crime,  may  be  sent 
to  it.  Here  moral  and  industrial  education,  rather  than 
punishment,  is  the  chief  aim.  The  end  in  view  is  to  take 
boys  who  have  started  wrong  in  life  and  reeducate  them 
for  good  citizenship.  Actual  imprisonment  —  for  the 
school  is  also  a  prison  —  is  only  incidental,  a  means  to 
the  prime  aim  of  reformation.  And  it  is  imprisonment 
under  conditions  of  development  and  growth. 

The  Reform  School  is  under  the  general  control  of  a 
board  of  five  trustees  appointed  by  the  governor  under  the 
same  general  conditions  as  the  board  of  penitentiary 
commissioners  (sec.  422).  The  active  management  of  the 
school  is  in  the  hands  of  a  trained  superintendent,  who 
is  an  expert  in  the  handling  and  training  of  delinquent 
boys  and  in  the  best  practices  of  modern  reform. 

425.  The  Girls'  Welfare  Home.  —  The  State  Reform 
School  at  Springer  as  originally  created  was  intended  to 
care  for  both  boys  and  girls ;  but  it  was  not  feasible  to 
handle  the  unruly  elements  of  both  sexes  in  the  same 
institution,  and  the  Reform  School  became  in  practice  an 
institution  for  delinquent  boys,  leaving  delinquent  girls 
not  provided  for. 

To  meet  this  situation  the  legislature  of  1919  created 
a  Girls'  Welfare  Board  composed  of  five  women  appointed 
by  the  governor,  with  the  approval  of  the  senate,  for  a  term 


THE   GOVERNMENT  OF   NEW  MEXICO 

of  two  years,  to  have  charge  of  all  girls  under  the  age  of 
eighteen  years  committed  to  their  care  by  the  district 
courts.  This  board  established  a  State  Girls'  Welfare 
Home  in  Albuquerque  to  receive  and  train  such  girls.  In 
this  home  they  are  wards  of  the  court  and  subject  to  its  orders. 

Girls  under  eighteen  convicted  of  crime  are  sent  to 
the  home  as  a  matter  of  course ;  but  conviction  of  crime  is 
not  a  necessary  condition.  If  a  girl  has  the  reputation  of 
being  unmanageable  and  keeping  bad  company,  or  of  being 
one  "  who  habitually  violates  the  compulsory  school  law," 
the  district  court  may  commit  her  to  the  charge  of  the 
Welfare  Board  for  training. 

All  misdemeanors  by  girls  under  eighteen  are  tried  by 
the  district  courts  and  all  preliminary  hearings  for  more 
serious  offenses  by  such  girls  are  held  before  district  judges 
as  committing  magistrates,  instead  of  before  justices 
of  the  peace,  as  would  ordinarily  be  the  case.  The  intent 
of  the  law  in  this  respect  is  plainly  to  guarantee  that  every 
girl  accused  of  crime  or  bad  conduct  shall  have  her  hearing 
or  trial  in  a  dignified  and  orderly  court. 

II.    CHARITABLE    INSTITUTIONS 

426.  Asylum  for  the  Insane.  —  As  the  penitentiary  at 
Santa  Fe  was  the  first  of  the  State's  penal  institutions,  so 
the  asylum  for  the  insane  at  Las  Vegas,  founded  in  1889, 
was  the  first  of  the  charitable  institutions.  The  object 
of  the  asylum  is  to  provide  care  and  medical  treatment 
free  of  charge  for  all  the  insane  poor  of  the  State.  It  is 
a  hospital  for  those  who  are  sick  in  mind.  Residents  of 
other  States  who  become  insane  while  in  New  Mexico  may 
be  cared  for  in  the  asylum  when  there  is  room  to  accommo- 
date them;  but  if  it  is  crowded,  residents  of  this  State 
are  properly  given  the  preference. 


PENAL  AND   CHARITABLE   INSTITUTIONS  349 

The  asylum  is  controlled  by  a  board  of  five  directors, 
not  more  than  three  from  the  same  political  party,  appointed 
by  the  governor,  with  the  consent  of  the  senate,  for  a  term 
of  four  years.  This  board  selects  a  medical  superintendent 
who  has  active  charge  and  management  under  the  general 
rules  and  regulations  prescribed  by  the  board. 

427.  Miners'  Hospital.  —  The  legislature  of  1903  estab- 
lished a  hospital  at  Raton  for  the  special  purpose  of  pro- 
viding free  treatment  and  care  for  injured  miners  who 
are  unable  to  pay  for  proper  hospital  treatment.     To  others 
the   facilities   of   the   hospital   are   available   at   cost.     It 
is  managed  by  a  board  of  trustees  appointed  in  the  same 
way,  and  having  the  same  powers  and  duties  as  the  trustees 
of  the  asylum  for  the  insane  (sec.  426). 

428.  The  Orphans'  Home.  —  In  1884,  before  the  Terri- 
tory had  established  any  public  charitable  institutions  of 
its  own,  the  Territorial  legislature  adopted  the  Asylum  of 
the  Sisters  of  Charity  at  Santa  Fe  as  the  New  Mexico 
Orphans'  Home  and  Industrial  School  under  the  control  of 
a  board  of  supervisors  consisting  of  the  archbishop,  the 
governor,  the   attorney  general,  the   chief  justice   of   the 
Supreme  Court,  and  the  hospital  physician.     It  was  given 
support  from  the  public  treasury  and  in  turn  must  receive, 
care  for,  and  educate  orphan  and  dependent  children  and 
use  its  influence  to  get  them  properly  placed  in  homes. 

This  arrangement  would  have  been  terminated  by  the 
general  provision  of  the  State  constitution  forbidding  the 
payment  of  public  money  to  any  charitable  or  educational 
institution  "  not  under  the  absolute  control  of  the  State," 
if  an  exception  had  not  been  made  in  favor  of  those  institu- 
tions which  received  an  appropriation  from  the  last  Terri- 
torial legislature  (1909).  That  exception  also  made  possible 


350  THE   GOVERNMENT  OF  NEW  MEXICO 

the  giving  of  some  public  support  to  the  Children's  Home 
Society  at  Albuquerque  and  about  a  dozen  other  private 
hospitals  and  schools. 

429.  Charity  and  Education.  —  The  Asylum  for  the  Deaf 
and  Dumb  at  Santa  Fe,  and  the  Institute  for  the  Blind  at 
Alamogordo,  both  founded  in  1903,  are  on  the  border  line 
between  public  charity  and  public  education,  but  should  be 
classed  as  belonging  primarily  to  the  field  of  education. 
The  reason  is  obvious :  they  do  not  provide  care  for  people 
of  all  ages ;  but  they  provide  for  the  education  or  reeducation 
of  children  of  school  age  who  are  unfortunate  enough  to  have 
lost  the  power  of  sight,  hearing,  or  speech.  In  other  words, 
they  are  schools  investing  public  money  in  the  training 
of  unfortunate  classes  of  children  for  useful  citizenship. 

REFERENCES 

Constitution  of  New  Mexico,  Art.  XIV,  Public  Institutions. 
J.  A.  FATRLIE,  Local  Government  in  Counties,  Towns,  and  Villages  ("Ameri- 
can State"  Series),  225-236. 

QUESTION   FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved,  That  the  trials  of  offenders  under  eighteen  years  of  age  should 
not  be  open  to  the  public. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  TEXT 

1.  What  are  the  purposes  of  State  prisons?     Are  they  more  necessary 
in  a  new  frontier  State  than  in  a  better  developed  region?     Why? 

2.  Why  should   boys  be  sent  to  the  State  Reform  School  only  as  a 
last  resort? 

3.  What  is  the  object  of  the  Girls'  Welfare  Home?     What  girls  may 
be  sent  to  it? 

4.  Why  should  the  Asylum  for  the  Insane  be  called  a  hospital? 

5.  Show  the  value  of  the  Orphans'     Home  and  the  Children's  Home 
Society. 


NOTE  ON    PRONUNCIATION 


Spanish  and  other  foreign  proper  names  are  pronounced  once 
where  they  first  appear  in  the  text.  The  section  in  which  the 
pronunciation  appears  is  indicated  in  the  Index  by  figures  in 
parentheses.  For  example,  "Abiquiu,  (101)"  means  that  the 
pronunciation  of  that  name  will  be  found  in  section  101. 

The  sound  of  Spanish  d  is  ordinarily  that  the  English  th  in 
that  (d  pronounced  with  the  tip  of  the  tongue  touching  the  upper 
front  teeth)  ;  after  /  and  n  and  at  the  beginning  a  breath-group, 
however,  it  approximates  English  d.  In  Spanish  America,  as  in 
southern  Spain  and  the  Philippines,  c  (before  e  and  t)  and  z  are 
pronounced  like  English  s;  and  //  equals  iy  in  sound.  These 
pronunciations  are  regularly  used  in  the  text  because  they  are  the 
standard  usage  in  New  Mexico  and  the  Southwest.  In  indicating 
pronunciations  in  this  book  y  is  always  sounded  as  in  yet;  never 
as  in  my.  In  names  having  two  pronunciations,  the  Spanish  has 
been  given  for  the  reason  that  the  Anglicized  form  can  be  more 
easily  found  elsewhere. 

INDEX 
References  are  to  sections. 


Abbott,   E.   C.,   300 

Abiquiu,   (101) 

Abo,  Onate  at,  55 

Abolitionists,    153 

Acoma,  (5);  Alvarado  at,  25;  Coronado 
at,  32;  Espejo  at,  41;  Beltran  at,  42; 
Onate  at,  55;  revolt  of,  56;  punish- 
ment of,  57;  87 

Adobe,    (5) 

Age   of   Discovery,    10 

Agricultural  College,  259,  261,  263; 
created,  369;  devolpment  of,  270; 
272,  273,  279,  303,  305 

Agricultural  experiment  station,  270, 
370 

Agriculture,  prehistoric,  7;  91;  chief 
crops,  115;  116,  145;  oldest  industry, 
239;  Pueblo,  239;  large-scale,  239; 
chief  industry,  245 


Aguatuvi,    (92) 

Agustin,    (37) 

Aisne,  battle  of,  (302) 

Alabama,  3 

Albino,    (135) 

Albuquerque,  (46);  settled,  90;  popula- 
tion, 91,  119;  165;  military  head- 
quarters, 192;  captured  by  Confed- 
erates, 207,  208;  skirmish  at,  209; 
railroad  at,  224 

Albuquerque   Academy,   252,   271 

Albuquerque   Public   Library,  271 

Alburquerque,   Duke  of,  90 

Alcalde,   (121) 

Alencastre,  Joaquin,  takes  Pike 
prisoner,  (112) 

Almaden,   (46) 

Alonso,    (15) 

Altitude.   2 


351 


352 


INDEX 


References  are  to  sections. 


Alvarado,   Pedro   de,   goes   to   eastern 

plains,    (25),   34 
Alvarez,  Manuel,   (182) 
Amendment  of  State  constitution,  312 
American   colonists,   107 
American    Fur    Company,    114 
American   market,    influence*  of,    145 
American   Occupation,   5,    11,   133,    147, 

153-169,    185,    193,    201,    251,    352 
American    pioneers,    4,    11,    107,    132; 

influence    of,    133;   187 
American  Revolution,  107,  319 
Americans,    first     in    Santa    Fe,     113; 
opposition    to,    134;    in    Texas-Santa 
Fe    Expedition,    140,    141;    mistreat- 
ment   of,    152;    the    name,    161 
American   West,   pioneering   spirit  ot, 

124,  126 

Ampudia,  general,  (154) 
Anarchy   in  Mexico,  152,  294 
Andalucia,  Nueva,  name    given    New 

Mexico   by    Espejo,    (44) 
Andres,    (15) 

Anti-slavery    agitation,    178,    190 
Anton   Chico,    (139);   battle   at,   175 
Anza,     Juan     Bautista     de,   governor, 
expedition    to    California,    (102),    103 
Apaches,    (4);   habits   and  customs,   9, 
215;  Joseph  among,   47;   53,   71;  hos- 
tility, 77,  78,  81,  92,  93,  100;  popula- 
tion, 143;  raids,  143;  warfare,  214-216 
Apache    Canyon,    4,    28,    55,    105,    129; 
front  door,   145;  Armijo  at,  160,  170; 
Kearny   at,   161;   battle    of,   208 
Apachu,   (9) 

Appalachian  Mountains,   107 
Appellate   jurisdiction,    372,   377 
Archaeological    Institute    of    America, 

275 

Archeveque,  Jean   de   1',    (94),  95 
Arellano,    (29) 

Arizona,  5;  Niza  in,  20;  Tovar  and 
Cardenas  in,  24;  Coronado  in,  33; 
Espejo  in,  41;  Farfan  in,  55;  crossed 
by  Onate,  61;  trade  route  to,  74; 
Pattie  in,  125;  settlements,  202;  Con- 
federate "Territory,"  204;  Con- 
federate conquest  of,  206;  delegate 
to  Confederate  Congress,  206;  Ter- 
ritory organized,  211;  Rough 


Riders,  280;  281,  282;  joint  state- 
hood proposed,  283-284 

Arkansas,  128 

Arkansas  River,  drainage  area,  2; 
natural  highway,  4;  crossed  by 
Coronado,  30;  Humana  and  Bonilla 
on,  47;  Onate  on,  59;  71,  75,  95; 
Mallet  party  on,  97;  Vial  on,  105; 
English  on,  107;  109;  Melgares  on, 
110;  Pike  on,  111;  Purcell  on,  113; 
trade  route,  114,  128;  boundary,  129, 
181;  raiders  on,  142;  Kearny  on,  158; 
followed  by  railroad,  224 

Armijo,  Manuel,  (135),  136,  137,  138, 
140,  142,  159,  160,  170 

Army  of  the   Center,   156,   166 

Army    of    Occupation,    154,    157 

Army   of  the   West,    156 

Arriba,    (150) 

Artesia,    241 

Artesian   wells,   241 

Artillery,     146th,     300 

Assembly,   freedom  of,  315,  317 

Assessor,    406 

Atlantic,   55;   slope,   107 

Attendance,    compulsory,    396 

Attorney   general,  365 

Audiencia,   (100),  121 

Auditor,   State,  363;  traveling,  369 

Auguste,    (114) 

Austin,   Texas,  139 

Austria,  war  with,  298-307 

Ayuntamiento,   (150) 

Aztec,    kingdom    conquered,    (13) 

Baca,  Alonso,  northeastern  expedi- 
tion, 71 

Baca,    Antonio   Jose,    131 

Baca,  Bartolome,   126,  130 

Baca,    Jose    Maria,    147 

Bail  bond,  315 

Baird,  James,   114 

Bank  examiner,  369 

Baptiste,    (113) 

Baptists,    252 

Barter,    117 

Bartolome,    (37) 

Baylor,  John   R.,  203,  204,  306 

Battery    A,    300,    303 

Bautista,    (45) 

Bear  Spring,  treaty  with  Navajos,  166 


INDEX 


353 


References  are  to  sections. 


Beaubien,   Charles,    (132),  163 

Becknell,  William,  124,  127,  128 

Helen,    144 

Belen    Cut-Off,   249 

Belleau  Wood,  battle  of,  (302),  303 

Beltran,    Bernaldino,    (40),   42 

Benavides,   Alonso,   (66).  67,   71 

Ben   Hur,    219 

Bent,   Charles,    132,    163,    172,    176 

Bent's  Fort,  128;  Kearny  at,  158;  160, 
226 

Benton,   Thomas  H.,    130 

Bernaldino,    (40) 

Bernalillo,  Alvarado  at,  (25);  Rodri- 
guez at,  37;  settled,  90 

Bernalillo  County,  created,  187;  high 
school  established,  265 

Bienville,    (97) 

Bigamy,    explained,    318 

Big-Four    regiment,    281 

Bigotes,   (25) 

Bill  of  attainder,  314,  315;  explained, 
320 

Bill  of  Rights,  in  Kearny  Code,  164; 
in  State  Constitution,  311,  315,  316- 
322,  323;  Federal,  314 

Bill  Williams  Fork,   Espejo  on,  41 

Billy     the     Kid,     219 

Blue-ballot    amendment,    288,    289 

Board  of  education,  State,  388,  395; 
county,  390 

Bolton,   Herbert   E.,   cited,  63 

Bonilla,   (47) 

Bonney,  William  H.,  219 

Boone,    Daniel,   moves   westward,    108 

Boonesboro,    Kentucky,    108 

Booneville,    Missouri,    108 

Boonville,    North   Carolina,    108 

Bosque   Redondo,    (213),    214 

Boundaries  of  New  Mexico,  constitu- 
tion of  1850,  181 

Boundary  dispute  with  Texas,  139, 
178;  settled,  189 

Boyd,    Nathan    E.,    246 

Brazito,    battle    of,    (167) 

Brazos  River,  Coronado  on,  (28),  29, 
30;  traders  on,  75;  Mares  on,  103 

British,    301 

Buena   Vista,    battle    of,    (177) 

Buffalo,   7;   described   by  Vaca,   15 


Burros,   115 

Burrus,   277 

Butterfield,    John,    199 

Butterfield  Overland  Stage,  120,  199, 
221,  226 

Caballeros,    (52) 

Cabildo,    (63) 

Cachupin,    governor,    (106) 

Caj6n  Pass,   (131) 

Calhoun,  James  S.,  first  Territorial 
governor,  186,  187,  190,  191 

Calhoun,  John  C.,  186 

California,  100,  101;  trade  with,  118, 
127;  trails  to,  131;  Americans  flee  to, 
142;  Americanization  of,  155;  con- 
quest of,  165;  Kearny  goes  to,  165; 
ceded  to  United  States,  177;  becomes 
a  State,  197;  communication  with, 
197;  road  to,  221 

"California    Column,"   206,    209 

Campaigns,  political,  324-327;  ex- 
penses, 326 

Camp    Churchman,    Georgia,   281 

Camp  Funston   (Albuquerque),  298 

Camp  Greene,   North  Carolina,   300 

Camp    Kearny,    California,    300 

Campo,   Andres   del,    (34) 

Canada,    (55) 

Canadian  River,  drainage  area,  2; 
natural  highway,  4;  Onate  on,  59; 
Zaldivar  on,  55;  Mallet  party  on, 
97;  Vial  on,  103;  Melgares  on,  110; 
128 

Canadians,    132 

Canby,   E.    R.    S.,   205,   207,    208,   209 

Cano,   Francisco  del,   (36) 

Capital,  San  Juan,  first,  52;  San 
Gabriel,  second,  58;  Santa  Fe,  third, 
63;  El  Paso,  fourth,  83 

Caravan    to    Mexico    City,    91 

Cardenas,  Garcia  Lopez  de,  discovers 
the  Grand  Canyon,  (24) 

Carleton,    James    H.,    209,    213 

Carlsbad,  railroad  at,  240;  irrigation 
project,  246,  370 

Carson,  Kit,  132,  133;  guides  Kearny 
to  California,  165;  209 

Carolinas,   3 

Carrizozo,   289 

Casas   Grandes,   36 


354 


INDEX 


References  are  to  sections. 


Casilda,    (43) 

Castaneda,    Pedro   de,    (8) 

Castano,    (46) 

Castillo,    (15) 

Catholic  schools,  modern,  251 

Catron  County,  232;  silver  and  copper 

in,  237 
Cattle,  7,  15 
Cattle  boom,  231 
"Cattle   Kings,"   231 
Cattle  raising,  115,  116,  231,  239 
Cavalry,   13th  United  States,  2V4 
Caypa,   renamed  San  Juan,   (52) 
Central  America,   13,   17 
Central    Empires,    war    with,    298-307. 
Cerrillos.     See  Los   Cerrillos 
Chama   River,    Escalante   on,    101 
Chambers,    Samuel,    114 
Chamuscado,  Francisco  Sanchez,  with 

Rodriguez  expedition,   (37),  39 
Chapuis,    Jean,    expedition    to    Santa 

Fe,    (97) 

Charitable    institutions,    426-429 
Charity    and    education,    429 
Chateau  Thierry,  battle  of,   (300),  302, 

303 

Chaves,    Amado,   261 
Chaves,    Antonio  Jose,    murdered,    142 
Chaves,    Francisco    Xavier,    (123) 
Chaves,    Manuel,    174,    208 
Chaves,    Pablo,    175 
Chaves  County,   232 
Chelly    Canyon,    (213) 
Chihuahua,     (9),     100,     110;     Pike    at, 

112;     American     prisoners     in,     114; 

fairs,  115,  118,  127;  158;  trail  to,  144; 

conquest  of,  156,  166,  168,  182;  cattle 

and    sheep   market,   229 
Chihuahua    state,    settlement    of,    35; 

Ibarra     in,   36;     claim    to    southern 

New   Mexico,    196 
Children's   Home   Society,    428 
Child   welfare   bureau,    399 
Chile,    (7) 

Chisum,    John    S.,   231 
Chivington,    Major,    208 
Chouteau,    Auguste    P.,    (114) 
Christian   Brothers,  251 
Christian     missionaries,     with     Coro- 

nado,   34 
Christmas,  first  in  New  Mexico,  56,  57 


Church,   53,   71,   83 

Cibola,    Seven    Cities   of,    (20) 

Cicuye  (Pecos),  Alvarado  at,  (25); 
missionaries  at,  34;  Espejo  at,  42; 
Sosa  at,  46 

Cimarron    Cut-Off,    (31),    105,    124,    128 

Cimarron    River,    129 

Cities,  schools,  394;  organization,  415; 
officers,  416;  elections,  418;  manager, 
420;  government,  416-421 

Citizenship,  promised  by  Kearny,  162; 
by  treaty,  177;  duties  of,  327;  State 
and  National,  333 

Civil  cases,  trial  of,  382 

Civil   Law,   Spanish-Mexican,  352 

Civil    law,    381 

Civil  rights,  explained,   315 

Civil  War,  137;  changes  Pacific  rail- 
road plans,  200;  in  New  Mexico, 
201-211;  Union  plans,  205;  Con- 
federate plans,  202-204,  206-207;  ef- 
fect of,  220 

Claims,  American  against  Mexico, 
152,  177 

Classes    of   population,    149 

Classification    of    counties,    402 

Clerk,    county,   408 

Cleveland,    President,   216 

Cliff  Dwellers,   5 

Climate,   3 

Clovis,  241 

Clovis  country,   Coronado  in,  28 

Coahuila,    (100),    102 

Coal,    237 

Cochiti,    (87),    92 

Coif  ax  county,  disorders  in,  218;  coal 
and  gold  in,  237;  242;  high  school 
established,  265 

Collector,  county,  406 

Colonization  of  New  Mexico,  pro- 
posals for,  45;  attempt  by  Sosa,  46; 
by  Onate,  52-58 

Colorado,  Mallet  party  in,  97;  Esca- 
lante in,  101;  prospecting  in,  106; 
128,  200;  Territory  organized,  211; 
co-operation  with,  277;  becomes 
State,  277 

Colorado  River,  drainage  area,  (2);  5; 
Cardenas  on,  24,  Onate  on,  61;  75; 
Pattie  on,  125;  St.  Vrain  on,  125; 
Kearny  on,  165;  boundary  of  New 
Mexico,  181 


INDEX 


355 


References  are  to  sections. 


Colorado      River      of      Texas,     New 

Mexicans  on,  72,  73;  75;   Mares  on, 

103 

Colorado   Volunteers,   208 
Columbus,    New    Mexico,    Villa    ram 

on,    294;    mobilization    camp    at,    296 
Comanches,   5,   9;    from    the    east,   93; 

trouble   with,  94,  95,  99,   100;  French 

among,   97;    Becknell    among,    124 
Comandante,    (100) 
Commanding   general    of   the    Interior 

Provinces,   100 

Commerce     of    New     Mexico,    Ameri- 
canized,   155 

Commerce  and  Industry,  116,  145,  192 
Commissioner  of  public   lands,   367 
Commissioners,   county,  403 
Commission  form  of  government,  419 
Commission-manager  government,  420 
Common   Law,    English,   352 
Compact  with  United  States,  310,  311 
Compostela,    Coronado    at,    (22) 
Compromise    of    1850,    182 
Compulsory    school    law,    256 
Concha,   Fernando,   governor,    (77) 
Conchos   River,    settlements    on,    (35); 

Rodriguez  on,  37;  Espejo  on,  40,  42; 

Onate    on,    50,    51 
Conejos    River,    Pike    on    (111) 
Confederacy,   200,   202,   206 
Confederates,     occupy      Mesilla,     203; 

retreat  of,  209;  213 
Congregationalists,    252 
Congress,    United    States,    130 
Congressmen,    election   of,   329 
Connelly,    Henry,    182,    201,    205 
Conquest  of  Mexico,  13 
Conquistadores,  (17) 
Constable,    404 

Constitution,    Mexican,    of   1836,    135 
Constitutions,    proposed,    181,    276,    278 
Constitution,     State,     ratification     pf~ 

278;     analysis     of,     311.       See     also 

Amendments 
Constitution    of    United    States,    187; 

prohibitions   in,   314;   bill    of  rights, 

314 
Continental  Divide,  crossed  by  Doni' 

phan,   166 
Conventions,    of    1848    and    1849,    178; 

constitutional,   of  1850,   181;   of   1910, 

286;    nominating,   324 


Cooke,  Philip  St.  George,  escorts 
traders'  caravan,  142;  with  Kearny, 
160;  wagon  trail  to  California,  169 

Cooke's  wagon  road,  169;  followed  by 
Forty-niners,  194;  by  overland  stage, 
199;  by  railroad,  226 

Copper,   234,   237 

Copper    Mine    Trail,    169 

Cordova,    (40) 

Coronado,  Francisco  Vasquez,  (5),  16; 
expedition  to  New  Mexico,  22-33;  at 
Zuni,  23,  24;  first  winter  at  Tiguex, 
26;  in  Texas,  28-30;  in  Kansas,  30; 
second  winter  at  Tiguex,  31;  re- 
turn to  New  Spain,  32;  last  days  of, 
32;  achievements  of,  33;  mission- 
aries with,  34;  35,  37,  39,  44,  48, 
59,  61,  62 

Coroner's   jury,    404 

Corporation   commission,   State,  368 

Corpus  Christi,   156 

Cortes,    Spanish    legislature,    (121) 

Cortes,   Hernando,   (13),   49 

Cortes,    Manuel,    172,    173,    175 

Council   Grove,    129 

Council  of  Defense,   State,  298,  299 

Counties,  first,  187;  classes  of,  391; 
government,  185,  400-411;  high 
schools,  265;  courts,  379,  404;  officers. 
402,  405,  410,  411 

Courts,  Spanish  and  Mexican,  121,  150; 
State,  371-385;  trial  of  cases,  382-385; 
Federal,  386.  See  also  Justice  of 
Peace,  District,  Supreme,  County 

Court  of  Private   Land   Claims,   248 

Crepusculo,   (147) 

Crime,  148,  218,  219,  228;  punishment 
of,  423 

Criminal   cases,   trial   of,  383 

Criminal  law,  381 

Cristobal,    (45) 

Croix,  Teodoro  de,   (100) 

Crook,   George    H.,   216 

Cruz,  Juan  de  la,  (34) 

Cuartelejo,   (71) 

Cuba,  13,  15,  279;  Rough  Riders  in, 
281 

Cuervo,    Francisco,   governor,    (90) 

Culiacan,  settled,  (13);  Vaca  at,  14; 
Xiza  at,  19;  Coronado  at,  22 

Cumberland    River,    107 


356 


INDEX 


References  are  to  sections. 


Cunningham,  Francis  A.,   182 

Curry    County,   244 

Curry,   George,   291 

Cutter,    51 

Dairying,  233 

Damasio,   (140) 

Dawson   Railway,   249 

Deaf  and  Dumb,  asylum  for,  429 

DeBremond,  Charles  M.,  303 

Defendant,    382 

Delaware,    1 

Delegate  in  Congress,  164,  178,  182,  187 

Deming,    railroads    at,   225 

Democrats,    strength   of,    282,   284,   286, 

289,    291,    327 
De  Munn,  Julius,   (114) 
Denver    and     Rio    Grande     Railroad, 

225,   243 
De  Soto,  (15) 
Department,  135,   150 
Desperadoes,    218,    219,    228 
Destruction   of   records   and  churches, 

83 

De  Vaca.    See  Vaca 
De   Vargas.    See   Vargas 
Diaz,    Porfirio,    (294) 
Discovery,    Age    of,    10 
Discovery    of   New    Mexico,   20 
"Disputed-territory"  myth,  154 
Distilleries,   145 
Distribution  of  powers,  311 
District   attorneys,   378 
District  courts,  371,  376-378 
District   judges,    378 
Districts,   judicial,    376 
Dodge  City,  Kansas,  Coronado  at,  30; 

Vial  at,  105;  129;  cattle  market,  229. 

231 

Dolores,   (122) 
Domingo,  (46) 
Dominguez,   (73) 
Dominguez,  Father,  101 
Dona    Ana,    167,    195,    196 
Dona      Ana     County,     created,     187; 

Gadsden  Purchase  annexed  to,   198; 

disorders  in,  218;  copper  in,  237 
Doniphan,   A.    W.,   Navajo   campaign, 

166;    Chihuahua   campaign,    167,    168, 

170 

Dorantes,   Andres,   (15) 
Drainage  areas,  New  Mexico,  2 


Due  process   of  law,  315 

Durango,    40,    168 

Easterners,   220,  276 

Eddy,    Charles   W.,   241 

Eddy  County,  irrigation  in,  241;  high 
school  established,  265 

Education   and  charity,  429 

Education,  in  Spanish  period,  120;  in 
Mexican  period,  146,  147;  of  <vomen, 
250;  Catholic  schools,  251;  Protestant 
schools,  252;  public,  early  efforts, 
253-257;  Congress  neglectful  of,  233; 
influence  of  railroads  on,  258;  im- 
portance to  State,  258;  Territorial 
board  of,  261;  industrial,  266;  night 
schools,  267;  State  board  of,  369; 
higher,  269-275.  See  also  Public 
school  system 

Educational   Association,   259 

Educational  institutions,  higher, 
sketch  of,  269-275;  management  of. 
398 

Educational  opportunity,  equality  of. 
312 

El    Caney,    battle    of,     (281) 

El   Crepusculo,   (147) 

El    Cuartelejo,    (71);    Villasur    at,    95 

Election,  first  State,  289,  291;  con- 
duct of,  323-334 

Electoral  College,  Mexican,  1M); 
State,  329 

Elephant  Butte  Dam,  233,  246;  pro- 
ject, 370 

Elizabethtown  gold  mines,  237 

"Elkins  handshake,"  277 

Elkins,    Stephen    B.,    277 

El  Paso  and  Northeastern  Railroad, 
249 

El  Paso  and  Southwestern  Railroad, 
249 

El  Paso  del  Norte,  5,  37;  Espejo  at, 
40;  Ofiate  at,  51;  settled,  70;  be- 
comes capital,  81,  82;  Vargas  at, 
85,  86;  population,  91,  119;  trade 
with,  115,  118;  Doniphan  at,  168; 
railroad  at,  225 

El   Rito,   normal   school  at,  274 

Emancipation    Proclamation,    210 

Embudo,  battle  at,  174 

Emory,    William   H.,   161,    195 

Enabling   Act,   285,   310 


INDEX 


357 


References  are  to  sections. 


Engineer,    State,    369 

England,  acquires  eastern  Louisiana, 
107;  recognizes  Texas,  154 

English,    instrusions    of,    107-109 

English    kings,    319 

Englishmen,  in  Texas-Santa  Fe  Ex- 
pedition, 140 

Episcopalians,    252 

Escalante,   Father,   (101) 

Escalona,   Luis   de,    (34) 

Espanola,    colony    in   Haiti,    (12) 

Espejo,  Antonio  de,  (40),  42,  44,  45, 
48,  61,  62 

Estufa,    (6) 

European  countries,  recognition  of 
Texas,  154 

Executive  department,  State  govern- 
ment, 311,  355-369;  lack  of  unity,  361 

Expansion,  of  New  Spain,  35;  spirit 
of,  155 

Exploration    in   fall    of  1598,   55 

Exports,    118 

Ex  post  facto  law,  314,  315;  explained, 
321 

Express   business,   200 

Facundo,    (110) 

Fairs.     See  Taos,  El  Paso,  Chihuahua 

Farfan,    Marcos,    in    Arizona,    (55),   61 

Farmington,   railroad   at,   243 

Febre,    (97) 

Federal    agencies,    370 

Federal    courts,    386 

Federal  vs.  State  government,  308, 
309 

Felipe,   (90) 

Felony  denned,  380,  note 

Fergusson,    Harvey    B.f  291 

Fernando,    (77) 

Financial    troubles,   188 

Firebrand    River,    61 

Florida,    Vaca    in,    15;    281 

Flying     squadrons,     92 

Foreigners,  293 

Forest    service,    370 

Fort    Belknap,    199 

Fort    Bent.      See    Bent's   Fort 

Fort   Bliss,   203,   209 

Fort    Breckinridge,   206 

Fort    Buchanan,    206 

Fort    Chadbourne,    199 

Fort  Chartres,  97 


Fort    Conrad,    established,    192 

Fort   Craig,  192,  206,  207,  208,  209,  213. 

Fort    Definance,    192 

Fort    Dodge,    cattle    market,    229,    231 

Fort    Fillmore,    192,    203,    208 

Fort  Leaven  worth,  Kearny  at,  156; 
183;  telegraph  line  from,  222;  mili- 
tary base,  223 

Fort    Marcy,    163,    170,     192,    207 

Fort    Selden,    51,   92 

Fort  Smith,   128 

Fort    Stanton,   203,    215,   219 

Fort    Sumner,    213,    214,    219 

Fort   Thome,   169 

Fort  Union,  established,  192;  Con- 
federate objective,  206,  207,  208,  212 

Fort   Webster,    192 

Fort    Yuma,   206 

Fortieth    Division,    300 

Forty-niners,   193,   194 

France,  hears  of  New  Mexico  .mines, 
94;  recognition  of  Texas,  154;  Amer- 
ican forces  in,  301,  302,  303 

Franciscan  missionaries,  34,  37,  38, 
39,  SI,  53,  64  . 

Franklin,   Missouri,    127,   128 

"Free     Silver,"    236 

Freighting,  overland,  129,  184,  193,  223 

Fremont,    John    C.,     133,     165  . 

French,  coming  of,  4,  11,  94-97;  among 
Kansas  and  Pawnees,  95;  traders 
backed  by  government,  97;  trade 
with,  forbidden,  96,  117,  132 

French  .and    Indian    War,    98 

Frontier,  shifting,  35;  widening  of, 
71;  exploration,  71-75;  reorganiza- 
tion, 100;  spirit,  106 

Frontiersmen,  71,  125 

Fruit    growing,   243 

Fur  trade,  125 

Gadsden,    James,    198 

Gadsden  Purchase  for  railway  route, 
169;  197,  198,  211 

Galisteo,  visited  by  Onate,  (52);  79; 
ruined  by  Comanches,  93 

Galpin,   141 

Game,   7 

Garrett,   Pat   F.,   219,   241 

Georgia,   3,   186 

German  intrigue  in   Mexico,  296 

German   prisoners   captured,   304 


358 


INDEX 


References  are  to  sections. 


Germany,   war   with,   298-307 
Geronimo,   Apache   chief,   (216),  23b 
Gila  Apaches,  missions  among,  74 
Gila  country,  trade  route  to,  74,  102 
Gila  Trail,   131,   144,   169;   followed  by 

railroad,    226 
Gila   River,   (2);   natural   highway,  4; 

St.  Vrain  on,  125;  route,  131;  bound- 
ary of  New  Mexico,  181 
Gilpin,  governor  of  Colorado,  205 
Glorieta,  battle  of,  208 
Gold,  Lake  of,  41;  production,  235,  237 
Gonzales,  Elias,   140 
Gonzales,  Jose,   (135),   136,   137,   141 
Good   Hope,   River  .of,  61 
Goss  Military   Institute,  373 
Goss,  Robert   S.,  273 
Government,    in    Spanish   period,   121; 

change  of,   123;   in   Mexican   period, 

150;       provisional,       organized       by 

Kearny,    163.       See    also     Territory, 

State,  County 
Governor,     Spanish,     powers     of,    121; 

Mexican,   150;  veto,  348;   appointing 

power,    357;    judicial    powers,     358; 

legislative  functions,  359;  messages, 

359 

"Granada"   (Zuni),   (23) 
Grand       Canyon,        discovered,       33; 

Escalante  and  Dominguez  at,  101 
Grand    jury,     385 
Grand  River,   Escalante   on,   101 
Grant  County,  232;  gold,  "copper,   and 

zinc  in,  237 

Great   Bend,    Kansas,   Vial   at,   105 
Great  Lakes,  33 

Great    Salt    Lake,    199,    200,    220 
Great  Spring  Drive,  300,  301,  302,  303 
Great  War,   New   Mexico   in,   298-307; 

effect  on  education,  267;  numbers  in, 

304;  civilian  work,  305 
Green  River,   Escalante  on,   101 
Gregg,      Josiah,      Commerce      of  ,  the 

Prairies,    referred    to,    147 
Guadalajara,    100,    121 
Guadalajara,    Diego    de,    (72) 
Guadalupe  del  Paso  mission,  (70),  82 
Guadalupe     Hidalgo,     treaty     of,    177, 

188,    195 
Gulf   of   California,   Vaca    on,    15,   33; 

Onate  .on.  61 


Gulf  of  Mexico,  drainage,  basin,  2,  3, 

34;   route   to,   71,   73;   French   on,   94 
Gunnison   River,   Rivera  on,   106 
Gwin,   Senator,  from  California,  197 
Habeas  corpus,   164,   315 
Hadley,  Hiram,  259,  263,  270 
Hagerman,   241 
Haiti,    (12) 
Handicrafts,  116 
Harding  County,  244 
Harwood  Industrial  School,  252 
Havana,    71 
Hawikuh,    (20) 
Health,    bureau    of,    399 
Hernando,   (13) 
Hewett,   Edgar   L.,  274 
Hidalgo,    (122) 
Hidalgo  County,  copper  and  silver  in, 

237 

Higher   education,   269-275 
High   schools,    county,    265,    393 
Hindenburg    Line    smashed,   302 
Historical    Society,    275 
Hogan,    Navajo   lodge,    (9) 
Hondo  Project  (irrigation),  246,  370 
Horses,     brought     by     Spaniards,     5; 

7,   114,    115 

Horticulture,    prehistoric,    7 
Hospitality,    144,    148 
Hough,    Emerson,    quoted,    219 
Houghton,    Joab,    163         | 
Houston,   Sam,   letter  to  Santa  Anna, 

141 

Howland,  Samuel,  140 
Huerta,    (294) 

Humana,  (47);  expedition  of,  59 
Hunter,  Captain,  206 
Ibarra,    Francisco,    (36) 
Idaho,   278 
Ignacia,     (132) 
Illinois,   97,   113,   128,   293 
Illiteracy,    250,    267 
Impeachment,    341 
Imports,    117,    118 
Incorporation    of    cities,     towns    and 

villages,  414 

Independence,   Missouri,    129,   183 
Independent  voters,  325,  327 
Indians,  baptized,  66,  88;  freedom,  83; 

campaigns,   93;   trade   with,    limited, 

117;  at  Bosque  Redondo,  213,  214 


INDEX 


359 


References  are  to  sections. 


Indian    policy,    French,    98;    Spanish, 

99,  100,  117;  American,  216,  2io 
Indian    population,    44,    66.      See    also 

Pueblo,  Apache,  Navajo,  etc. 
Indian   problem,   26,   84,92,  93,   99,    143. 

190,  191,  192,  211,  212;  settlement  of, 

212-216 

Indian    slavery,   201 
Indian    Territory,   28u,   281,   282 
Indictment,    385 
Industrial    education,   266 
Industries,   145 

Initiative,   286;    in   cities,  421 
Inquest,    404 
Insane,  asylum  for,  426 
Inspector  Comandante,   (100) 
Insurance,  superintendent  of,  369 
Interior  Provinces,  100,  101,  102 
Internas,    (100) 
Iron,    237 
Irrigation,    prehistoric,    7;    later,    115, 

239-241,    245,    246 
Isabella,   colony    of,   12 
Isleta,    (46),    69 
Jamestown,   12,   52,  54,   276 
Janos,    (102) 
Jaramillo    familly,    163 
Jaramillo,  Josefa,  wife  of  Kit  Carson, 

133;  Maria  Ignacia,  wife  of  Charles 

Bent,   (132) 
Jefe   Politico,    (150) 
Jefferson,  Thomas,  310 
Jemez,    Espejo    at,    41;    Onate    at,    52; 

87,   92,   93 

Jemez   River,    Rodriguez  on,   (38) 
Jesuit  college  at   Las  Vegas,  251 
Jicarilla    Apaches,    (93) 
Joaquin,   (112) 

Joint    statehood     with     Arizona     pro- 
posed,  283-284 
Jornada      del      Muerto,      crossed      by 

Onate's  colonists,  (51);  91,  92,  204 
Joseph,     survivor     of     Humana     and 

Bonilla     expedition,    47;     guide    for 

Onate,  59 
Juan,    (2) 
Juarez,     settled,     (70);     Doniphan    at, 

168,  181 

Judicial  department,  311 
Jumano  Indians,   Espejo  among,  (40); 

visited  by  New  Mexicans,  72,  73 


Jury,  trial  by,  164,  384;  service  on, 
315;  petit,  384;  grand,  385 

Justice  of  peace  courts,  187,  371,  380, 
404 

Kansas,  Coronado  in,  30,  33;  first  mis- 
sionaries in,  34;  Onate  in,  59;  Mal- 
let party  in,  97;  people  from,  293. 

Kansas  City,  184 

Kansas  Indians,  French  among,  95 

Kansas    River,    Vial   at,    105 

Kaskaskia,    113,    128 

Kearny    Code,    164,    187,    188 

Kearny's    Organic    Act,    164,    176 

Kearny,  Stephen  W.,  156;  numbers  in 
command,  157;  march  to  Bent's  Fort, 
158;  proclamations  of,  159,  161; 
enters  Santa  Fe,  161;  leaves  for 
California,  165;  abolishes  stamp  tax, 
188;  183,  193,  197 

Kelly,   zinc    mines    at,    237 

Kentucky,  108,   113,  114,  125,   131 

King  of  Spain,  45,  67,  121 

Kiva,   (6) 

Knights  of  Columbus  drives,  305,  306 

Kozlosky's    Ranch,    208 

La  Canada,  (55),  69,  90;  population, 
91,  119;  battles  at,  135,  136,  174 

La  Cuesta,   (140) 

Laguna,    (92) 

Laguna    del    Oro,    41 

La  Harpe,  expeditions  on  Red  and 
Arkansas  rivers,  (94),  104 

La   Jicarilla,   95 

La  Junta,  128 

La  Lande,  Baptiste,   (113),  '32 

Lamar,  President  of  Texan  Republic, 
139 

Lamy,  John  B.,  251 

Land  grants,  settlement  of  title,  247- 
248 

Land  registry   law,   10-1 

Land   offices,   United   States,   370 

Lands,  public,  commissioner  of,  368 

Larrazolo,  O.  A.,  governor,   357 

La  Salle  on  Texas  coast,  (73),  94 

Las  Graces  College,  259,  270 

Las   Guasimas,   battle   of,    (281) 

Las  Palomas,  (131) 

Las  'Vegas,  (105);  settled,  129; 
Kearny  at,  159;  skirmish  at,  175; 
railroad  at,  224;  Jesuit  college  at, 


36o 


INDEX 


References  are  to  sections. 


251;  academy  at,  252;  Normal  Uni- 
versity at,  274 

Latitude,  3 

Lavaca   River,   La  Salle  on,   (73) 

Lawlessness,   spirit  of,  218,  219,   228 

Laws   of  .  Settlement    (1573),    46 

Laws,   publication   of,   351 

Lea  County,  244 

Legislative   districts,   336 

Legislature,  under  Kearny's  Organic 
Act,  176,  178;  Territorial,  185,  187; 
State,  335-354;  composition  and  ses- 
sions, 335;  qualification  of  members, 
337;  term  of  office,  339;  vacancies  in, 
340;  powers  of  House  and  Senate, 
341;  powers  of,  342-343;  organization 
of,  344;  committees  of,  345;  procedure 
of,  346-349;  adjournment,  349 

Leon,   (46) 

Libel   explained,   316 

Liberty    Loans,   305,  306 

Liberty  under  law,  322 

Lieutenant  governor,  360 

Lincoln,  proposed  State  of,  276 

Lincoln  County,  coal  and  iron  in,  237; 
240,  242,  287 

Lincoln   County   War,  219,  220 

Lindsey,    W.    E.,    governor,    299 

Liquor  tax,  256 

Little  Colorado  River,  drainage  area,  2 

Little   Arkansas    River,    142 

Live  stock,  prices,  114,  115;  industry, 
229-233 

Local  government,  85,  400 

Lomas,  Juan   Bautista  de,    (45) 

Lone   Star   Republic,   139 

"Longhorns,"   229 

Lopez,    (24) 

Lopez,   Francisco,   37,   39,   40 

Lopez,    Nicolas,    72,   73 

Lordsburg,    silver   mines    at,    237 

Loretto,    Sisters   of,   251 

Los  Angeles,   101;   trail   to,    131 

Los  Cerrillos,  settled,  (90);  turquoise 
mines  at,  234 

"Lost  Expedition,"  95 

Louisiana,  94,  97,  102;  trail  to,  104; 
acquired  by  Spain,  107;  ceded  by 
Spain  to  France,  109;  boundary  ot, 
109;  explored  by  Pike,  111,  113 

Louisiana  Purchase,  11,  108,  109,  124 


Luis,    (34) 

Lumber,  238 

Luna,    (28) 

Luna  County,  zinc  in,  237;  high  school 

established,  265 
Lynde,   Isaac,  203 
McAllister,    140,    141 
McDaniel,    John,    raid,    142 
McDonald,  William  C.,  first  governor 

of  State,   289,  290,  291 
McKinley  County,  20;  coal  in,  237 
McKinley,   President,  279 
McKnight,   Robert,  114 
McLeod,    Hugh,    139 
Madero  revolution,  (294) 
Magdalena    Mountains,    99 
Magellan,    Straits   of,    12 
Mail     service,     early,     144;    overland, 

183,    184,    199 

Maldonado,   Alonso   del    Castillo,    (15) 
Mallet  party,   results  of  visit,   (97) 
Mandamus,  372 
Manuel,    (135) 
Manufactures,    116,    238 
Manzano  Mountains,  i>5 
Marcos,    (16) 
Mares,    Jose,    (103) 
Maria,    (37) 
Marine   Corps,   American,   at   Chateau 

Thierry,   302 

Marne,   Second  Battle   of,    (302),    303 
Marriages,   Christian,   annuelled,   83 
Martin,   Cristobal,    (45) 
Martinez,  Alonzo,    (51),  60 
Martinez,  Antonio  Jose,    147,    187 
Martinez,   Juan,  95 
Massachusetts,  140 
Matagorda   Bay,   71 
Matamoros,   military   forces   at,    (154); 

Taylor  at,  156 
Medical    examiners,    State    board    of, 

369 

Medicine   men,   78,  89 
Melgares,  Facundo,  (110),  111,  123 
Memphis,    Tennessee,   199 
Menaul    School,   252 
Mendoza,    Antonio    de,    (17),    22,    32 
Mendoza,   Dominguez  de,   73 
Mendoza-Lopez  expedition  into  Texas, 

73 
Merriwether,    David,    114 


INDEX 


36i 


References  are  to  sections. 


Mesa.    (5) 

Mescalero  Apaches,  rounded  up,  (213) ; 
on  warpath,  214;  on  reservation,  215 

Mescalero    Indian    agency,    219 

Mesilla,  founding  of,  (1%);  on  over- 
land stage  route,  199,  221;  Confed- 
erates at,  202,  204;  reached  by  tele- 
graph, 222 

Mesilla  Valley,  Fort  Fillmore  in,  192; 
Confederate  volunteers  from,  204;  233 

Messervy,  William  S.,  182 

Methodists,   252 

Mexican    border,   trouble   on,  294-297 

Mexican   boundary  dispute,   195-198 

Mexican  government,  monarchical 
tendencies,  136 

"Mexican  Mountains,"  111 

Mexican  period,   123;  end  of,   151,   161 

Mexican  Republic,  4;  established,  122, 
123;  124,  126;  opposition  to  Ameri- 
cans, 134;  centralization  in,  135;  142 

Mexicans  in   New  Mexico,  293 

Mexican  War,  causes  of,  152-156;  plan 
of  operations,  156;  close  of,  177,  186; 
stopped  Chihuahua  trade,  223 

Mexico,  conquest  of,  13;  Valley  of,  36; 
independence  of,  122;  American  ex- 
pedition into,  295,  297 

Mexico  City,  occupied  by  Cortes,  13, 
18;  Niza  at,  21;  Coronado  at,  .'2; 
Onate  at,  50',  62;  trail  to,  71,  91,  145; 
government  at,  64;  revolution  at, 
122;  140;  captured  by  Americans,  177 

Mica    mines,    106,    234 

Michigan,  277 

Miguel,    (43) 

Middle  West,  railway  connection 
with,  240 

Miles,   Nelson  A.,  216     . 

Military  control,  1846-1851,  176,  182,  190 

Military  Department  of  New  Mexico. 
176,  191,  202,  209 

Military  Institute,  founding  of,  273; 
development  of,  273,  274,  275 

Military  posts,  192 

Military  protection,  92,  121 

Militia,   192;  denned,  357 

Milling,   238 

Mills,   primitive,   145 

Mills,   William  J.,  governor,   290 

Mimbres  Valley,   169 


Mine    inspector,    369 

Mineral  wealth  of  New  Mexico,  re- 
ported by  Espejo,  44;  known  to 
French,  94;  modern,  234-237 

Miners'    hospital,    427 

Mining,  106,  145,  234-237,  278;  first 
boom,  236 

Miscellaneous  provisions  of  State  con- 
stitution, 311 

Misdemeanor,   defined,  380,  note 

Missionaries,  first  in  New  Mexico,  34 

Missions,  founded  by  Onate,  53,  65; 
growth  of,  65;  civilizing  agencies,  98 

Mississippi  River,  drainage  area,  2,  3; 
discovered,  15;  French  on,  94;  boun- 
dary of  New  Spain,  107 

Missippi   Valley,   4,    11 

Missouri,  124,  127,  128;  in  Civil  War, 
205;  people  from,  293 

Missouri  River,  Mallet  party  on,  97; 
Vial  on,  105;  English  on,  107;  Daniel 
Boone  on,  108;  109,  110;  Purcell  on, 
113;  road  to,  126,  221 

Mogollon,   silver  mines  at,  237 

Mojave  Desert,  crossed  by  Spanish 
Trail,  (131);  by  overland  stage,  199 

Monclova,  (46) 

Money,   117 

Montana,    133,    278 

Monterey,   California,   101,   102 

Montezuma,  (13),  49;  proposed  State 
of,  278 

Montoya,    Juan    Martinez    de,    (63) 

Montoya,   Pablo,    172,   175 

Moqui,  discovered  by  Tovar,  (24); 
Rodriguez  at,  38;  Espejo  at,  41; 
Onate  at,  55;  Vargas  at,  85 

Mora,  106;  Americans  killed  at,  173; 
engagements  at,  175;  mica  mines  at, 
234 

Mora  River,   128;   Fort  Union  on,   192 

Morlete,  Juan,  (46) 

Mormons,   318 

Morning  Journal,    Albuquerque,   289 

Merrill  Act,  270 

Morrison,  William,   113 

Moses,  20 

Mules,    115 

Municipal  corporations,  412;  govern- 
ment, 412-421 

Munroe,    John,    governor,    176,    182 


362 


INDEX 


References  are  to  sections. 


Museum    of    New    Mexico,    275 

Napoleon,    121,    122 

Narvaez  expedition,    (15) 

Natchitoches,  (94);  trail  to,  104;  Pike 
at,  112 

National   Army,   American,   303 

National  Guard,  called  out,  296;  mus- 
tered out,  297;  called  to  Federal  ser- 
vice, 298,  299,  304;  denned,  357 

Naturalization,   332,    333 

Navajo  Indians,  (5);  habits  and 
customs,  9,  213;  depradations  of,  63; 
allies  of  Apaches,  93;  treaty  with 
Doniphan,  166;  at  Bosque  Redondo, 
213;  on  reservation,  214 

Nebraska,  Mallet  party   in,  97 

Negroes,  187,  210 

New   Almaden,    (46) 

New    Biscay,    46,    47,    70,    84,    100,    102 

New  Bedford,  Massachusetts,  140 

New  England,  1,  89;  type  of  govern- 
ment, 400 

New  Galicia,  Coronado  governor,  32 

New  Jersey,   1 

New   Leon,   (46) 

New  Mexico,  location  and  size,  1; 
discovered  by  Spaniards,  10,  19,  20; 
the  name,  36,  276;  as  northern  out- 
post, 55,  64;  reconquest  of,  84-86; 
part  of  Interior  Provinces,  100; 
ceded  to  United  States,  177 

New  Mexico  Central  Railroad,  249 

New  Mexico  Educational  Associa- 
tion, 259,  267 

New  Orleans,  97 

"New  Placers,"  gold  mining  at,  235 

New  Spain,  13;  Vaca  in,  14;  Niza  in, 
18,  21;  shifting  frontier  of,  35;.  colo- 
nists return  to,  54;  expansion  of, 
64;  French  prisoners  in,  94;  Interior 
Provinces  of,  100;  frontier  energy, 
160 

Newton,  Kansas,  cattle  market,  229 

New  West  Education  Commission,  252 

Nicolas,    (73) 

Nineteenth  Amendment,  338 

Niza,  Friar  Marcos  de,  (16>;  discovers 
New  Mexico,  18-20;  route  of,  19;  ef- 
fect of  report,  21;  guide  for  Coro- 
nado, 22,  33;  34,  48 

Nominations  for  office,  323-327 


Normal   Schools,  274 

North  America,  exploration  of,  33 

North  and  South,  controversy  be- 
tween, 153,  201 

North  Carolina,  133 

North   Dakota,   278 

Northeastern  expansion,  55,  64,  % 

Northeastern  expeditions  of  Uribarri, 
94;  Valverde  and  Villasur,  95 

Northeastern  frontier,  French  on,  95 

Northern    exploration,   64 

North  Sea,  45 

Northwest    Ordinance    of    1787,    310 

Nova  Scotia,  12 

Nueces,   154 

Nunez,   (15) 

Oconor,   Hugo,   100 

Ohio    River,    English    on,    1U/ 

Ojo    Caliente,    Pike    at,    (112) 

Oklahoma,  Coronado  in,  30,  33;  75; 
Rough  Riders,  280;  281,  282;  becomes 
State,  283;  people  from,  293 

Old  Spanish  Trail,  101,  131.  See  also 
Spanish  Trail 

Onate,    Cristobal,   63 

Onate,  Juan  de,  (5);  family  history, 
49;  colonizing  plans,  50;  route  to 
New  Mexico,  51;  meets  Pueblo 
chiefs,  52;  'settles  at  San  Juan,  52; 
relations  with  Indians,  57;  report 
to  viceroy,  58;  Quivira  expedition, 
59;  expedition  to  Gulf  of  California, 
61;  achievements,  62 

Ordinance  of  1784,  310;  of  1787,  310 

Oregon,  153 

Organic  Act  of  1850,  signed,  182;  pro- 
visions of,  185;  186,  187,  189 

Organ   Pass,  203 

Original  jurisdiction,   372,   377 

Orphans'   home,   428 

Otermin,  Antonio  de,  governor,  (79); 
abandons  Santa  Fe,  81 

Otero,  Antonio  Jose,  163 

Otero  County,  copper  in,  237;  high 
school  established,  265 

Otero,  Miguel  A.,  governor,  263 

Overland  mail,  beginning  of,  183;  to 
Pacific,  199 

Overland    trade,    115,    193,   223 

Pacific   coast,    route   to,    4,    211;    Coro- 


INDEX 


363 


References  are  to  sections. 


nado  on,  22;  Onate  on,  61;  pack 
trains  to,  131 

Pacific  railroad,  surveys  for,  197;  198, 
220 

Pack   trains,  65,   116,    118,   124,   131 

Padilla,   Juan    de,    (34) 

Paganism,    89 

Palace    Hotel,   269,    note 

Palace  of  the  Governors,  161,  187,  219, 
275 

Palomas,    (131) 

Panama,    Isthmus   of,    13 

Pardon,    power   of,    358 

Parral,    skirmish    at,    (295) 

Pan-as  Lake,  (36) 

Pattie,  James  O.,   125 

Paul,  Major,  209 

Pawnee  Indians,  French  among,  94; 
massacre  Villasur  party,  95;  Mel- 
gares  among,  110;  Pike  among,  111 

Pecos,  missionaries  at,  34;  Onate  at, 
52;  Zaldivar  at,  59;  71,  79;  ruined 
by  Comanches,  93;  trading  center, 
96,  117;  129;  Kearny  at,  159.  See 
also  Cicuye 

Pecos   country,   139,   140 

Pecos  River,  (2),  5;  Alvarado  on,  25; 
Coronado  on,  28,  29;  Espejo  on,  42; 
Sosa  on,  46;  Indians  on,  213 

Pecos  Valley,  early  settlers,  218;  cat- 
tlemen in,  231;  cattle  business  in, 
232;  isolated,  240;  railroad  in,  240 

Pecos  Valley  and  Northeastern  Rail- 
road, 240,  249 

Pedro,   (24) 

Penal    institutions,    422-425 

Penitentiary,  228;  superintendent  of, 
369;  management  of,  422 

Pennsylvania,  1 

Penuela,   governor,    (88) 

Peonage,    149,   201;    abolished,   210 

Peralta,   battle   at,   209 

Peralta,  Pedro  de,  governor,  (63) 

Perez,  Albino,  governor,  (135);  mur- 
der of,  135 

Pershing,    John    J.,    295,    298,    300,    302 

Peru,   17,    18,   64 

Philippines,    schools    in,   253 

Picuris,    (78),    87 

Pierre,    (103) 

Pigeon's  Ranch,  208 


Pike,  Zebulon  M.,  106;  expedition  of, 
111-112;  among  the  Pawnees,  111;  in 
Santa  Fe,  112;  at  Chihuahua,  112, 
113;  report  of,  114 

Pike's  Peak,  discovered,   111 

Pilgrims,    52 

Pima   Indians,    (74) 

Pino,    Nicolas,    174 

Pino,    Pedro    Bautista,    (121) 

Pioneering  spirit  of  American  West, 
108 

Pioneers,  Spanish,  patriotism  and 
missionary  zeal,  48;  Anglo-Ameri- 
can, 107;  Western,  spirit  of,  155; 
New  Mexican,  181 

Pizarro,    (18) 

Plaintiff,   382 

Platforms,  party,  324 

Platte  River,  Humanna  and  Bonilla 
on,  47;  Villasur  on,  95;  Mallet 
party  on,  97;  110;  Purcell  on,  113 

Plaza,    (159) 

Pluarality   rule   in    elections,   330 

Plymouth,   52,   54,  276 

Poblaciones,  (90) 

Pocket  veto,   348 

Political  and  religious  controversies, 
76 

Political    Chief,    123,    150 

Political   equality,   312 

Political  parties,  first,  179;  277,  278, 
282,  291.  See  also  Democrats,  Re- 
publicans 

Political   rights   defined,   315 

Polk,  James  K.,  President,  election 
of,  153;  dealings  with  Mexico,  154 

Poll   tax,   first,   256 

Polygamy,    310 

Pony   express,  183,   199 

Pope,    (78) 

Population,  division  of,  11;  69,  91, 
117,  119,  190;  growth  of,  292;  com- 
position of,  293;  Indian,  38,  43,  44, 
66,  143;  Pueblo,  38,  143;  Apache,  143; 
Navajo,  180 

Porfirio,    (294) 

Portales,    241 

Porto  Rico,  schools  in,  253;  surrender 
of,  281 

Post   offices,    early,    144 

Powder   factory,    145 


364 


INDEX 


References  arc  to  sections. 


Prairie    schooners,    129,    158 

Precinct    courts,    380,    404 

Presbyterians,    252 

Presentment,    385 

Presidential    electors,    329 

Presidios,    (91),    100 

Press,  freedom  qf,  315;  explained,  316 

Price,  Sterling,  troops  under,  157,  166, 
170;  march  to  Taos,  174,  176 

Prices    in    Santa    Fe,    114,    116 

Primary,    direct,    286 

Prince,    L.    B.,    governor,   236,   260,   361 

Printing,  introduction  of,  147;  modern, 
238 

Probate   courts,   371,   379,   404 

Progressives,    289 

Prohibition    amendment,   299 

Provincias    Internas,    (100) 

Provisional  government,  1846-1851, 
170-184;  military  control  of,  176; 
financial  troubles  of,  188 

Puaray,  renamed  "Tiguex,"  (25); 
Rodriguez  expedition  at,  37;  mis- 
sionaries at,  39;  Espejo  at,  40,  42; 
Onate  at,  55.  See  also  Tiguex. 

Public   lands,    310 

Public    welfare,    department    of,    399 

"Pueblo,"    two    meanings,    (5) 

Pueblo,  Colorado,  Pike  at,  111 

Pueblo  Indians,  5;  region  occupied 
by,  5;  arts,  crafts,  and  industries, 
7;  social  and  religious  customs,  8, 
68;  "dances,"  8;  population,  5,  38, 
119,  143;  danger  from,  69,  76,  87; 
servitude,  76,  117;  government,  121; 
in  Revolt  of  1847,  172;  citizenship 
of,  217 

Pueblo  Rebellion,  72,  73;  account  of, 
76-83;  number  killed,  79;  results  of, 
81,  83;  84,  89,  94;  later  uprisings,  87 

Puerto  de  Luna,  Coronado  at,    (28) 

Punche,    (115) 

Purcell,  James,  113,  132 

Quay    County,    244 

Quesenberry,  Joseph,    303 

Quivira,  tales  of,  (27);  28,  29;  Coro- 
nado at,  30;  inhabitants  of,  30;  first 
missionaries  at,  34;  expedition  ot 
Onate  to,  59 

Quo  warranto,  372 


Race  mixture,  11,  293;  equality,  312, 
315 

Railroads,  start  west,  184;  route  to 
Pacific,  197;  coming  of,  224-228;  fol- 
low old  trails,  226;  influence  of,  227; 
new  problems,  228;  monopoly  of,  228, 
249;  influence  on  statehood  move- 
ment, 278.  See  also  Denver  and 
Rio  Grande,  El  Paso  and  North- 
eastern, El  Paso  and  Southwestern, 
New  Mexico  Central,  Pecos  Valley 
and  Northeastern,  Rock  Island, 
Santa  Fe,  Santa  Fe  Central,  South- 
ern Pacific,  Texas  and  Pacific, 
Unioa  Pacific. 

Rainfall,  3 

Raton  Pass,  (11),  128;  Kearny  at,  159; 
railroad  at,  224 

Recall,   in   cities,  421 

Reclamation  service,  370 

Reconquest  of  New   Mexico,  86,  87 

Reconstruction  period,  277 

Records  destroyed,   83 

Red  Cross,    305 

Redondo,    (213) 

Red  River,  drainage  area,  2;  natural 
highway,  4;  Vial  on,  103,  104;  Eng- 
lish on,  107,  109,  112,  139;  crossed 
by  Butterfield  Stage,  199 

Red  River  Canyon,    battle   at,    175 

Referendum,  on  first  school  law,  254, 
286;  in  New  Mexico,  explained,  353; 
in  cities,  421 

Reform   School,  424 

Religious  freedom,  310,  314;  explained, 
318 

Religious   status   of  Pueblos,   76 

Representatives   in  Congress,  354 

Republicans,  strength  of,  282,  284,  286, 
289,  291,  327 

Revision   of  State   constitution,   313 

Revolt  of  1847,  170-176;  causes,  170, 
172;  results,  176 

Revolution  of  1837,  135;  results  of,  137 

Riballo,    (97) 

Rincon,  Cooke  at,  169 

Rio   Arriba,    (150) 

Rio  Arriba  County,  created,  187,  254 

"Rio  de   Las   Vacas,"    (42) 

Rio  Grande,  drainage  area,  (2); 
natural  highway,  4;  Alvarado  on,  25; 


INDEX 


365 


References  are  to  sections. 


Rodriguez  on,  37;  Beltran  on,  42; 
Sosa  on,  46;  Onate  on,  51;  settle- 
ments in  valley  of,  69;  St.  Vrain  on, 
125;  Taylor  on,  156 

Rio  Grande  Industrial  School,  352 

Rio  Salado  (Pecos  River),  (46) 

Rio  Tizon,   (61) 

Rivera,  Juan  Maria,  in  Colorado,  (106) 

Roads,    144,    221 

Robinson,  John  H.,  with  Pike,  111, 
112,  113 

Robledo,  presidio  at,    (92) 

Rock   Island  Railroad,   249 

Rocky  Mountains,  2,  4;  well  known 
to  New  Mexicans,  106;  Carson  in, 
133;  express  business  in,  200 

Rodriguez,  Agustin,  expedition  to 
New  Mexico,  37-39;  new  route  of, 
(37);  explorations  of,  38-39;  death 
of,  39,  48 

Romero,  Tomasito,  (172),  174,  175 

Roosevelt  County,  244,  287 

Roosevelt    Dam,   246 

Roosevelt,   Theodore,   quoted,    155,   279 

Ross,    Edmund   G.,   governor,   269 

Roswell,  29,  33,  railroad  at,  240; 
artesian  water  at,  241 

Roubidoux,   Antonio,    (132),    159 

Rough  Riders,  organization,  280;  fight- 
ing in  Cuba,  281,  282 

Russians,    301 

Sabine    River,   Vial   on,    (104),    154 

Sacramento    Pass,    battle    of,    168 

St.   Clair,   97 

St.    Francis,    Kingdom   of,  20 

St.   Lawrence  River,  94 

St.  Louis,  trail  to,  105,  128 

St.  Louis  to  San  Francisco  stage,  199 

St.    Michael's   College,   251,  261 

St.    Mihiel,    battle    of,    (302),    303 

St.  Vrain,  Ceran,  (125),  132,  133,  163, 
174 

Salado,    (46) 

Salaries    of  county    officers,    403 

Salas,  Father,  expedition  into  Texas, 
(72) 

Salazar,  Damasio,   (140) 

Saltillo,    Doniphan    at,    (168) 

Salt  Lakes,  visited  by  Onate,  55 

Salvation    Army    drive,    306 


San  Antonio  and  San  Diego  Mail, 
199,  221,  226 

San  Antonio,  Texas,  102;  founded, 
103;  trail  to,  103,  156,  197 

San  Bartolome,  Rodriguez  at,  (37); 
Kspejo  at,  40 

San    Carlos    Reservation,    215 

Sanchez,    (37) 

San    Cristobal,    visited    by    Onate,    52 

Sandia  Mountains,   (37) 

San  Diego,  California,  mail  line  to, 
199;  telegraph  reaches,  222 

San   Felipe,    (90) 

"San    Francisco,   city    of,"    52 

San  Francisco,   stage  line  to,  199 

San  Gabriel,  founded,  (58);  aband- 
oned, 60;  Onate  returns  to,  61;  de- 
cline of,  63 

Sangre  de   Cristo  Mountains,    (2),   111 

San  Ildefonso,  Sosa  at,  (46);  Onate 
at,  52 

San    Jacinto,    (152) 

San  Joaquin  Valley,  (199) 

San  Juan,  first  settlement  at,  1598,  9, 
52;  visited  by  Sosa,  46;  grand  coun- 
cil at,  53;  first  winter  at,  54,  56,  57, 
58;  Pope  at,  78;  Pike  at,  112 

San   Juan    (Cuba),  battle   of,  281 

San  Juan  Basin,  crossed  by  Escalante 
and  Dominguez,  101;  Rivera  in,  106; 
development  of,  242;  coal  deposits 
in,  237 

San  Juan  County,  created,  243;  chief 
industries,  243,  287 

"San  Juan  de   los   Caballeros,"   W 

San  Juan  River,  drainage  area,  (2); 
natural  highway,  4 

San    Luis    Valley,    111 

San   Marcial,   (39),  33,  71 

San    Marcos,   Onate   at,  52,  55 

San  Miguel,  124,   129;   Kearny  at,   159 

San   Miguel   Church,  88 

San   Miguel    County,   created,   187,  336 

San  Pedro  River,  169 

San   Pedro  Valley,   74 

Santa  Ana  County,  created,  187,  254 

Santa  Anna,  General,  135,  140,  142,  151. 
152,  177 

Santa  Barbara,  Rodriguez  at,  37,  40; 
Onate  at,  51,  54 


366 


INDEX 


References  are  to  sections. 


Santa  Barbara  mines,  (35),  40;  Onate 
at,  50;  deserters  at,  60 

Santa   Clara,    Sosa   at,   46,    92 

Santa  Cruz  (Arizona),  presidio  at,  102 

Santa  Cruz  de  La  Canada.  See  La 
Canada 

Santa  Fe,  (4);  founded,  63;  first 
church  in,  67;  population  of,  69,  71, 
119;  71,  72,  76;  siege  of,  85;  recap- 
tured, 85;  reoccupied  by  Vargas,  86; 
distance  from  Mexico  City,  91; 
French  expedition  toward,  94;  Mal- 
let party  at,  97;  Vial  at,  103;  Robin- 
son at,  111;  Pike  at,  112;  traders 
start  to,  114,  122;  Becknell  at,  124; 
made  Territorial  capital,  187;  cap- 
tured by  Confederates,  207,  203;  rail- 
road at,  224;  Mica  mines  at,  234; 
schools  at,  251,  252 

Santa    Fe    Central    Railroad,   249 

Santa  Fe  County,  created,  187;  copper 
and  zinc  in,  237 

Santa  Fe  garrison,  92 

Santa  Fe  Railroad,  218;  coming  of, 
224,  249 

Santa  Fe  trade,  113,  114,  118;  goods 
and  prices,  124,  127;  government  aid, 
126,  130;  popularity  of,  126;  in- 
fluence of,  134;  importance  of,  138, 
142;  injured  by  Revolution  of  1837, 
138;  139,  145,  193;  after  Civil  War, 
223 

Santa  Fe  Trail,  Coronado  on,  31; 
blazed  by  Vial,  105;  route  of,  128; 
survey  of,  130;  142,  144,  158;  freight- 
ing over,  184;  Forty-niners  on,  194, 
199;  followed  by  railroad,  226 

Santa  Maria,  Juan  de,  Franciscau 
missionary,  (37),  40 

Santa  Rita  copper  mines,  106,  131; 
Fort  Webster  at,  192;  197,  234 

Santa   Rosa,  249 

Santiago    (Cuba),    surrender    of,    281 

Santo  Domingo,  Sosa  at,  (46);  Onate 
at,  52,  87 

Satren,   Pierre,  at  Santa  Fe,  (97) 

School   directors,  392 

School   law,   common,  254-256,   260 

School    of  American    Archaeology,   275 

School  of  American  Research,  275 


School  of  Mines,  created,  269;  de- 
velopment of,  272 

School  revenues,  397 

Schools,    Spanish    mission,    67 

School  System,  public,  258-268;  or- 
ganization of,  261;  tax-supported, 
262;  enrollment,  263;  term  lengthen- 
ed, 264;  management  of,  387-399. 
See  also  Education. 

Scotch-Irish,    129 

Scott,  Winfield,  Vera  Cruz  expedition, 
156,  177 

Searches  and  seizures,  315;  explained, 
319 

Secretary  of  state,  362 

Senate,    court    of    impeachment,    371 

Senators,  United  States,  election  of, 
329,  351 

Session    laws,   351 

Settlement   at   San   Juan,   52 

Settlement,    Laws   of,    46 

Seven    Cities,    stories    of,    14,    19,    20 

Sevier  Lake,   Escalante   at,    (101) 

Sheep   brought  by    Spaniards,   7 

"Sheep  Kings,"   145,   230 

Sheep  raising,  4,  114,  115,  145;  im- 
portance of,  230,  239 

Sheriff,  407 

Short   ballot,   419 

Sia,  Espejo  at,   (41);   Onate  at,   52 

Sibley,  H.  H.,  206,  207,  209 

Sierra  County,  iron  in,  237;  Elephant 
Butte  Dam  in,  246,  287 

Silver,    237 

Silver  City,  normal  school  at,  274 

Sisters    of    Charity,   428 

Sky  City.     See  Acoma 

Sinaloa,  settled,  (13);  traversed  by 
Coronado,  33,  100 

Slander,    explained,    316 

Slavery,    149,    180,    201 

Slavery  controversy,   influence  of,   153 

Slocum,    Herbert,    294 

Smith,  Hugh  N.,  178 

Smith,   John,   52 

Smith-Hughes  Act,    266,   395 

Snively,  Jacob,  raid  on  Santa  Fe 
Trail,  142 

Social   life,    144,    148 

Socorro,  the  name,  51;  Onate  at,  51; 
74,  92;  Confederates  at,  207 


INDEX 


367 


References  are  to  sections. 


Socorro  County,  created,  187,  232;  coal, 
iron,  copper,  gold,  and  zinc  in,  237; 
254,  336 

Sonora,     crossed     by     Coronado,     33; 

Indian  troubles  in,  84,  100;  route  to, 

102;   Pattie    in,    125;    Cooke's   wagon 

road   through,    197 

Sosa,    Caspar   Castano   de,    colonizing 

efforts,    (46),    48 
South,    controversy    with    North,    153; 

favorable  to  West,  277 
South  Carolina,  198 
Southerners,    201 
Southern  Pacific  Railroad,  218 
Southern    type    of  government,   400 
South    Sea,    45;   Onate   on,   61 
Southwest,    belated,   220 
Spain,    in    the    Age    of   discovery,    12; 
New  Mexico  claimed  for  ,20;  Moors 
in,  23;  claims  of,  29;  acquires  west- 
ern Louisiana,  98;  imports  from,  116 
Spanish-American  Normol   School,  274 
Spanish-American    War,    279-281 
Spanish   and   Mexican    law,   164 
Spanish  colonial  policy,  118,  132,  124 
Spanish  era,   close   of,   99-122 
Spanish    King,    67 

Spanish  language  in  New  Mexico,   10 
Spanish     pioneers,   4;     character     and 
traditions    of,    10,    17;    patriotic    and 
missionary  zeal  of,  40 
Spanish   Trail,   101,   131,    144,   242.     See 
also  Old  Spanish,  Trail. 
Speech,  freedom  of,  315;  explained,  316 
Springer,    reform    school    at,   424 
Stagecoach,    coming    of,    184 
Stamp  tax,   abolished  by  Kearny,  188 
Stars    and    Stripes,    154;    raised    over 

Palace   of  Governors,   161 
State,    admission    of,    290,    310 
State    government,    field    of,    308;    im- 
portance   of,    308,    309;    organization 
of,    311 

"State"   government   of  1850,    182 
Statehood,  movement  for,  177,  178,  180, 
182,  276-278;  winning  of,  282-285;  be- 
ginnings  of,  276-307. 
Statehood  Bill.    See  Enabling  Act 
"State  party,"  179 

Stephen,    guide    of   Friar   Marcos,    15, 
18:   at  Zuni.   20,   22,   40 


Stock  raising,  4,  91,  115,  116,  145; 
first  source  of  wealth,  229;  recent 
progress,  232;  278 

Stockton,  Commodore,  165 

Students'  Army  Training  Crops,  305 

Suffrage,  right  of,  315,  331-3.52,  3J4 

Sumner,  E.   V.,   191,    192 

Sunday  laws,  256 

Superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
366;  functions,  389 

Superintendent  of  schools,  county,  391 

Supreme  court,  371-375;  jurisdiction  of 
372;  sessions  of,  373;  judges,  374; 
other  officers,  375 

Supreme  Court  of  United  States,  ap- 
peal to,  372 

Surveyor,    county,    409 

Taft,    President,    290 

Tampico,    (34) 

Taos,  (5);  Spaniards  at,  29,  33;  Sosa 
at,  46;  Onate  at,  52;  69,  71,  79,  87; 
Pope  at,  78;  Vargas  at,  85;  trading 
center,  92,  96;  Mallet  party  at,  97; 
114,  128,  131;  population  of,  117; 
Becknell  at,  124;  American  settlers 
in,  132;  Kit  Carson  at,  133;  Amer- 
icans flee  from,  142;  163,  165;  battle 
of,  174;  road  to,  221 

Taos  County,  created,  187;  254 

Taos   fairs,  97;   articles   of   trade,   117 

Taos    Rebellion.     See    Revolt   of    1847 

Taos   Valley,   massacre    in,   79 

Tariff  on  goods  from  United  States, 
126,  138,  188 

Taxation,    135,    255,    310,    406 

Tax  commission,  369 

Taylor,  Zachary,  on  Rio  Grande,  154; 
168,  177;  favors  statehood,  180;  186 

Teachers,    qualifications   of,    257 

Tecolote,   Kearny   at,   (159) 

Tejas   Indians,    (72),   73 

Telegraph,    coming   of,    222 

Tennessee,    3,    131,    140 

Tennessee  River,  English  on,  107 

Territorial  government,  provisional, 
organized  by  Kearny,  163-164;  plan- 
ned by  convention  of  1849,  178; 
regular,  created,  185;  organized,  186, 
187;  nature  of,  190.  See  also  Gov- 
ernment 

"Territorial    Party,"    179 


368 


INDEX 


References  are  to  sections. 


Territorial  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  261 

Tesuque,    (79) 

Texan  Republic,  recognition  of,  154, 
189 

Texans,    feeling   against,    137,    139,    141 

Texas,  Vaca  in,  15;  Coronado  in,  28- 
30,  33;  Spaniards  in,  34;  Spanish  ac- 
tivity in,  71-73,  75,  100,  107,  118;  in- 
dependence of,  152;  Republic  of,  153; 
annexation  of,  opposed  by  Aboli- 
tionists, 153;  dispute  over,  154; 
Aemricanized,  155;  Confederates 
from,  201;  people  from,  293;  Villista 
raids  into,  296 

Texas  and  Pacific  Railroad,  218 

Texas-Mexico  boundary,  effort  to  set- 
tle, 139,  154;  156,  177 

Texas-New  Mexico  boundary  dis- 
pute, 139,  178  ,189 

Texas-Santa  Fc  Expedition,  137; 
route  of,  139;  organization  and  pur- 
poses, 139;  treatment  of,  140,  141; 
results  of,  141,  142,  152 

Textbooks,    uniform,    261 

Thirteenth  Amendment,  210 

Tigua    Indians,    (25),    40 

Tiguex,  Alvarado  at,  (25);  Coronado's 
first  winter  at,  26;  28,  29;  Coronado's 
second  winter  at,  32;  missionaries 
at,  34.  See  Puaray. 

Tizon,  (61) 

Tomasito,    (172) 

Tome,   postoffice   at,    (144) 

Tompkins,   Frank,  294 

Torrance  County,  Rodriguez  in,  38,  55 

Tovar,  Pedro  de,  discovers  Tusayan, 
(24),  34 

Township,    400 

Towns,  schools  in,  394;  government 
of,  413-414 

Trade,  with  Indians,  limited,  96;  with 
French,  forbidden,  96;  restrictions 
on,  114,  117,  118,  124,  138,  142,  193 

Trade  route  to  Gila  country,  102 

Traders,  72,  114,  116 

Trades  and   industries,    116 

Transcontinental  railroad,  plans  for, 
197;  224 

Trappers,   113,   125,    131 

Travel   and   communication,    144,   221 


Treason,    defined,    315 

Treasurer,    State,    364;    county,    406 

Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,   177 

Trial  by  jury,  314,  315,  384 

Tribute,    76 

Trinidad,   Colorado,   218 

Tucson,  (169) ;  on  overland  stage 
route,  199;  convention  at,  204;  taken 
by  Confederates,  206;  telegraph  at. 
222 

Tucumcari,   249 

Tupatu,    Luis,    (78) 

Turk,  25,  27,  28,  29;  "made  an  ex- 
ample of,"  30 

Turkeys,  7 

Turley'n  Mill,  Americans  killed  at. 
173 

Turquoise,   234 

Tusayan,  discovered  by  Tovar,  (24). 
34 

Twitchell,    R.    E.,    quoted,   280 

Uncompahgre  region,  Rivera  in,  (106). 

Union,  New  Mexico  for,  201,  202 

Union   County,   244 

Union  Pacific  Railroad,  223 

United  States,  11;  acquires  Loui- 
siana, 109;  westward  expansion  of. 
110;  114;  trade  with,  118,  126,  131; 
recognition  of  Texas,  154.  See  also 
Santa  Fe  trade,  West,  Southwest. 

United  States  Bureau  of  Education. 
270 

United  States  flag  on  Spanish  terri- 
tory, 112 

United  War  Work   drive,   306 

University,  261;  created,  269;  develop- 
ment of  ,271;  272,  305 

Unwritten    law,   352 

Uribarri,  Juan,  at  El  Cuartelejo,   (94) 

Utah,  Escalante  in,  101;  trail  through, 
131 

Utah  Lake,  Escalante  at,  101 

Ute  Indians,  5,  9;  allies  of  Apaches, 
93;  campaigns  against,  94,  95 

Vaca,  Cabeza  de,  (15);  hears  of  New 
Mexican  pueblos,  16;  journey  of,  17; 
18,  40. 

Valencia  County,  5;  created,  187;  232; 
coal  and  copper  in,  237 

Valenciano,   Casilda,    (43) 

Valenciano,    Miguel    Sanchez,    43 


INDEX 


369 


References  are  to  sections. 


Valverde,  Antonio,  northeastern  cam- 
paign, 95 

Valverde,  battle  of,  207,  216 

Van    Buren,    Arkansas,    199 

Vara,    (124) 

Vargas,  Diego  de,  governor,  recon- 
quest  by,  (85);  reoccupation  by,  86; 
completes  reconquest,  87;  90;  French- 
men with,  94 

Vasquez,    (22) 

Valesco,  Luis  de,  (50),  58 

Vera  Cruz,  founded,  (13) ;  port  of 
entry,  116;  trail  to,  126,  145 

Vera  Cruz  expedition,  Scott's,  156 

Verdict,   384 

Vermont,   203 

Veteran  Company  at  Santa  Fe,  92,  121 

Veto,  of  Territorial  governor,  185;  in 
State,  348,  359 

Vial,  Pierre,  opens  trail  to  San 
Antonio,  (103);  route  to  Natchi- 
toches,  704;  128,  139 

Vicente,   (52) 

Viceroy,    121 

Victorio,   Apache  chief,  215 

Vigil,  Donaciano,  governor,  176, 
163,  250 

Vigil,   Gregorio,    (140) 

Vigil,  Juan  Bautista,  161 

Villa    Francisco,    (294),   295,   297 

Villages,  schools,  394;  government  of, 
413-414 

Villasur,  Pedro,  expedition  to  Platte 
River,  (95) 

Villista   raids,    (296) 

Virginia,    133 

Virgin    River,    131 

Vocational   education,  265,  395 

Voters,  qualifications  of,  331-332,  334 

Wahsatch  Mountains,   131 

Wagon   Mound,   128,   129,   159 

Wagons,  first  used  in  Santa  Fe  trade, 
124 

War,  Mexican,  152-168,  177;  Spanish- 
American,  279-281;  with  Germany, 
298-306 

Warfield,   Colonel,  raid  on  Mora,   142 

Washington,    D.    C,    165 

Washington,  John  M.,  governor,  176 


Washington    State,   378 
Wallace,   Lew,  governor,  219 
Weather   bureau,   370 
Weightman,    Richard    H.t    182,    187 
Welfare    board,    girls',    425 
Welfare  home,   girls',  425 
Wells-Butterfield    interests,     200 
Wells,  Fargo  and  Company,  chartered, 

200 
Westerners,  114,  129,  152;  influence  of, 

135,    152;   attitude   of,    153;    spirit   of, 

155 
Western   influence,   opposition  to,  276, 

277,  282,  283,  284,   285 
West  Indies,  discovered  by  Columbus, 

12,    13 

Wheaton,    Theodore    D.,    187 
Whipping   as  punishment,  210 
White  Mountains,  2,  238 
Wichita  Falls.  Vial  at,  103 
Wilson   Dam,  246 
Wilson,    Woodrow,    298 
Witchcraft,    78,   89 
Wolfskill,   William,   131 
Woman,    first    in    New   Mexico,    43 
Woman   suffrage,   334 
Women,    build    pueblos,    5;    education 

of,    250 

Wood,    Leonard,   279 
Wool,  John   E.,    156,    166,   168 
Writ  of  assistance,   explained,   319 
Wyoming,    106,    278 
Xavier,    (123) 
Yates,  141 
Young,    Ewing,    131 
Y.   M.    C.   A.   drives,   305,   306 
Zacatecas,    (36),  49 
Zaldivar,      Juan      de,      murdered      at 

Acoma,  56 
Zaldivar,    Vicente    de,    (52);    goes    to 

astern    plains,    55;    captures    Acoma, 

57;  59;  brings  back  deserters,  60 
Zuni,  (9);  discovered  by  Stephen  and 

Niza,  20;  Coronado  at,  22,  23,  24,  32; 

called  "Granada"  by   Coronado,  23; 

Rodriguez  at,  38;  Espejo  at,  41,  42; 

Onate  at,  55;  56,  71;  Vargas  at,  85; 

Escalante  at,  101 
Zuni    Mountains,  238 


The    Big    New    Gymnasium    of    the    New    Mexico    State    Normal 
The  Athletic  and    Social   Center   of  the   School 

The  New  Mexico 
State  Normal  School 

Silver  City,  New  Mexico 

An  Eight  Grade  Training  School. 

A  full  Four- Year  High  School,  with  special  emphasis  on  Eleventh 
and  Twelfth  Grade  Work. 

A  Two-Year  College  Course,  leading  to  Bachelor  of  Pedagogy  De- 
gree and  the  Professional  Certificate. 

Three  and  Four- Year  College  Courses  leading  to  Master  of  Peda- 
gogy and  Bachelor  of  Arts  Degrees. 


Dormitory  Room  and  Board  at  Reasonable  Rates. 
Fine   Climate   and   Picturesque    Location, 
Wholesome,  Pleasant   Social  Life, 
Abundant  Recreations. 

Ask  for  Free   Catalog.     Address: 

President,  New  Mexico  State  Normal  School 

Silver  City,  New  Mexico 

New  Mexico  State  Teachers'  College       The  Service  School  of  the  State 


370 


Goode's  Base  Maps 
and  Graphs 

Prepared    by 

J.  Paul  Goode 

*    Professor   of   Geography   in   the 
University   of   Chicago 

The  desk  maps  come  in  three  sizes,  from  8x10^  to  21x15 
inches,  all  perforated  for  insertion  in  a  standard  notebook 
cover  with  page  8x10^  inches.  The  larger  sizes  fold  into 
this  cover.  Several  wall  outline  maps  are  issued,  48x36  inches. 


Miniature  of  Map  No.   101  He.     The  homalographic  projection, 

interrupted  to  present  the  continents.     The  entire 

earth's  surface  is  shown  without 

distortion  of  area. 

The  maps  are  made  from  the  best  drawings,  printed  with  a 
good  quality  of  ink  on  bond  paper,  and  the  presswork  is  of 
the  highest  order.  Recent  issues  have  been  made  by  the 
photo-lithographic  process,  thus  preserving  an  absolutely 
smooth  surface  of  paper  on  which  to  work.  These  maps  are 
considered  by  the  many  who  use  them  as  the  best  quality  of 
base  maps  on  the  market. 

Complete  list  with  prices  will  be  sent  upon  request 
The  University  of  Chicago  Press 

59C5   Ellis  Avenue  Chicago,  Illinois 


3/1 


THE    NEW    MEXICO 

NORMAL  UNIVERSITY 

OF 

EAST  L.AS  VEGAS,  NEW  MEXICO 


[A  State  Teachers'  College 

A  Normal  School 
Maintains  the  following:     -s  A  High  School 

A  Training  School 
I  Part  Time  and  Evening  Classes 

DEPARTMENTS 

Agriculture  Liberal  Arts 

Ancient  Languages  Manual  Training 

Applied  Art  and  Design  Mathematics 

Biological  Science  Modern  Languages 

Commerce  Music 

Education  Oratory 

English  Physical  Science 

History  Psychology 

Home  Economics  Social  Science 

Student  Welfare 

Students  may  enter  at  any  time 


DEGREES — The  New  Mexico  Normal  University  confers 
the  following  degrees:  Bachelor  of  Pedagogy,  Master 
of  Pedagogy,  Bachelor  of  Child  Welfare.  Bachelor  of 
Arts  in  Education,  Bachelor  of  Arts  in  Child  Welfare. 

LEADERSHIP— The  New  Mexico  Normal  University  stud- 
ents are  among  the  leaders  of  every  community. 


372 


NEW  MEXICO  MILITARY  INSTITUTE 

A  Strictly  Military  Boarding  School 

Preparatory  and  Junior  College. 

•  Rated  with  highest  honors  by  U.  S. 
War  Department. 

Horses  for  Cavalry  Drill,  as  well  as 
all  military  equipment  and  military  in- 
struction, furnished  free  by  War  Depart- 
ment. 

For  catalog  and  illustrated  booklet, 
address  Superintendent,  N.  M.  M.  I., 
Roswell,  New  Mexico. 


373 


They  fit 

your  feet 

comfortably.— 

Have  smooth,  easy  insole*. 

All  leather— all  the  time. 

They're  half  the  fun  of  having  feet. 

Look  for  the  "Red  Goose"  Dealer. 


Always  look 
for  the  little 
Red  Goose  trade 
mark  stamped  on 
the  sole  or  inside 
each  Genuine 
"Red  Goose"  Shoe. 


"Never  Do  to  be  Without 
Jell-O" 

As  Tommy  finished  the  Jell-O  dessert 
at  dinner  his  mamma  remarked,  "That's 
the  last  of  the  Jell-O  in  the  house,"  and 
he  went  to  the  kitchen  to  enter  an 
order  for  more. 

"It'll  never  do  to  be  without  Jell-O," 
Tommy  says. 

It's  a  good  idea  to  see  that  there  is 
always  enough 


in  the  house  to  supply  the  boys  and 
girls  in  the  family  with  the  Jell-O  des- 
serts which  they  like  so  much. 

A  dozen  or  more  different  kinds  of 
Jell-O  dishes  are  made  from  each  of  the 
six  flavors  of  Jell-O,  which  are:  Straw- 
berry, Raspberry,  Orange,  Lemon,  Cher- 
ry, Chocolate. 

THE  GENESEE  PURE  FOOD  COMPANY 
Le  Roy,  N.  Y.,  and  Bridgeburg,  Ont. 


C  >»*C.  B»  THC  tZNistc  ran  rooo  COMPANY 


Biee'est  Thing 

of  its  kind  in  the  World 


It  may  be  interesting  to  know  which  is  the  largest  city  in  China— 
the  largest  river  in  Africa  —  but  it  is  more  important  to  know  about 
the  industrial  life  of  your  country  —  because  when  most  of  you  go 
out  into  the  world  you  will  become  active  figures  in  the  making, 
buying  and  selling  of  things. 


The  Calumet  Baking  Powder 
factories,  in  Chicago  and  East 
St.  Louis  are  the  largest,  most 
modern  and  sanitary  plants  of 
their  kind  on  earth.  More  pounds 
of  Calumet  are  sold  than  of  any 
other  brand  of  baking  powder. 

That  is  because  Calumet  is  the 
best,  purest,  most  dependable 
baking  powder  made;  makes  the 
finest,  most  wholesome,  tasty  pies, 
cakes,  biscuits,  doughnuts,  etc. 


You  will  find  the  same  rule  ap- 
plies to  everything  you  do  in  life. 
If  you  do  a  thing  better  than  any 
one  else  —  your  services  will  al- 
ways be  in  demand  and  you  will 
surely  be  a  leader  in  your  line  of 
work.  Calumet  Baking  Powder 
is  sold  at  a  moderate  price — has 
more  than  the  usual  leavening 
strength — and  never  fails. 

A  slip  in  pound  can  tells  how 
to  get  the  beautifully  illustrated 
Calumet  Cook  Book. 


Hqw  to  tell  NORTH 
without*  Compaj5 


HOW  TO       * 

Make  a  box  kite 

Make  a  bow  and  arrow 

Tell  north  without  a  compass 

Skin  a  muskrat 

Trap  rabbits  without  injury 

Make  a  tent 

Build  a  canoe 

Blaze  a  trail 

Rescue  a  drowning  person 

Make  a  skate  sail 

Make  snow  shoes 

Signal  by  wigwagging 

Recognize  animal  tracks 

Build  a  cabin  and  many  other  things 


—  this  and  many  other  things  that 
American  boys  ought  to  know  are  told 
in  Honor  Bright  Boys'  Handbook. 
This  book  will  tell  you  how  the  Indians  snared  fish  before 
they  had  hooks  and  lines,  how  they  selected  a  straight 
smooth  branch  from  the  ash  to  make  bows  to  shoot  their 
arrows  straight.  Suppose  some  day  you  should  go  camp- 
ing, get  lost,  have  to  spend  the  night  alone,  and  have  no 
matches.  How  would  you  start  a  fire?  How  could  you 
build  a  shelter  without  anything  but  your  knife  ?  Suppose 
even  though  you  knew  your  friends  at  camp  were  only  a 
short  distance  away,  how  conld  yeu  tell  north  without  a 
compass?  All  of  these  things,  and  many  more,  you  learn 
how  to  do  in  this  book. 

It  will  tell  you  many  things  Daniel  Boone  had  to  do  when 
he  was  alone  in  the  wilderness.  It  will  show  you  how 
to  enjoy  the  many  treats  that  nature  holds  for  boys  who 
learn  her  secrets.  The  Honor  Bright  Boys'  Handbook  is 
bound  in  Khaki  cloth  and  will  fit  in  your  pocket  so  you 
can  refer  to  it  at  all  times. 

Here  Is  the  Way  To  Get  It 

On  all  Honor  Bright  Boys'  Blouses  and  Shirts,  is  a 
ticket  like  the  one  shown  below  and  if  you  will  save 
up  six  of  them  and  send  to  us  we  will  send  you  free 
an  Honor  Bright  Boys'  Handbook.  Send  no  money 
or  stamps— just  the  six  tickets  and  name  of  the 
store  where  your  parents  bought  your  shirts  or 
blouses.  Honor  Bright  garments  look  well,  wear 
well,  and  are  sold  at  reasonable  prices. 

One  Ticket  Free 

To  get  this  book  more  quickly, 
stop  in  at  the  store  where  your 
parents  buy  your  clothes,  ask  it 
they  sell  Honor  Bright  Blouses 
and  Shirts,  and  then  write  us 
telling  the  name  of  the  store 
and  whether  they  sell  them. 
As  soon  as  we  receive  this 
information    from    you    we 
will  send  you  one  ticket  free 
so  you  will  only  need  five 
more  to  get  this  wonder- 
ful book. 

Dept.  X 


RELIANCE 
MANUFACTURING  CO. 

West  Monroe  Street,  Chicago 


